______________________________________________________________________ 14 Templates [temp] ______________________________________________________________________ 1 A template defines a family of classes or functions. template-declaration: exportopt template < template-parameter-list > declaration template-parameter-list: template-parameter template-parameter-list , template-parameter The declaration in a template-declaration shall --declare or define a function or a class, or --define a member function, a member class or a static data member of a class template or of a class nested within a class template, or --define a member template of a class or class template. A template-declaration is a declaration. A template-declaration is also a definition if its declaration defines a function, a class, or a static data member. 2 A template-declaration can appear only as a namespace scope or class scope declaration. In a function template declaration, the declara- tor-id shall be a template-name (i.e., not a template-id). [Note: in a class template declaration, if the declarator-id is a template-id, the declaration declares a class template partial specialization (_temp.class.spec_). ] 3 In a template-declaration, explicit specialization, or explicit instantiation the init-declarator-list in the declaration shall con- tain at most one declarator. When such a declaration is used to declare a class template, no declarator is permitted. 4 A template name may have linkage (_basic.link_). A template, a tem- plate explicit specialization (_temp.expl.spec_), or a class template partial specialization shall not have C linkage. If the linkage of one of these is something other than C or C++, the behavior is imple- mentation-defined. Template definitions shall obey the one definition rule (_basic.def.odr_). [Note: default arguments for function tem- plates and for member functions of class templates are considered def- initions for the purpose of template instantiation (_temp.decls_) and must also obey the one definition rule. ] 5 A class template shall not have the same name as any other template, class, function, object, enumeration, enumerator, namespace, or type in the same scope (_basic.scope_), except as specified in (_temp.class.spec_). Except that a function template can be over- loaded either by (non-template) functions with the same name or by other function templates with the same name (_temp.over_), a template name declared in namespace scope or in class scope shall be unique in that scope. 6 A namespace-scope declaration or definition of a non-inline function template, a non-inline member function template, a non-inline member function of a class template or a static data member of a class tem- plate may be preceded by the export keyword. If such a template is defined in the same translation unit in which it is declared as exported, the definition is considered to be exported. The first dec- laration of the template containing the export keyword must not follow the definition. 7 Declaring a class template exported is equivalent to declaring all of its non-inline function members, static data members, member classes, member class templates and non-inline function member templates which are defined in that translation unit exported. 8 Templates defined in an unnamed namespace shall not be exported. A template shall be exported only once in a program. An implementation is not required to diagnose a violation of this rule. A non-exported template that is neither explicitly specialized nor explicitly instan- tiated must be defined in every translation unit in which it is implicitly instantiated (_temp.inst_) or explicitly instantiated (_temp.explicit_); no diagnostic is required. An exported template need only be declared (and not necessarily defined) in a translation unit in which it is instantiated. A template function declared both exported and inline is just inline and not exported. 9 [Note: an implementation may require that a translation unit contain- ing the definition of an exported template be compiled before any translation unit containing an instantiation of that template. ] 14.1 Template parameters [temp.param] 1 The syntax for template-parameters is: template-parameter: type-parameter parameter-declaration type-parameter: class identifieropt class identifieropt = type-id typename identifieropt typename identifieropt = type-id template < template-parameter-list > class identifieropt template < template-parameter-list > class identifieropt = id-expression 2 +------- BEGIN BOX 1 -------+ The above syntax for a default template-argument for a template tem- plate-parameter has been changed editorially. The original syntax only allowed the form template-name which did not allow qualifiers. This restriction appears to predate namespaces and member templates; it seems clear that qualifiers should now be allowed. (bg) +------- END BOX 1 -------+ 3 There is no semantic difference between class and typename in a tem- plate-parameter. typename followed by an unqualified-id names a tem- plate type parameter. typename followed by a qualified-name denotes the type in a non-type 1) parameter-declaration. A storage class shall not be specified in a template-parameter declaration. [Note: a template parameter may be a class template. For example, template<class T> class myarray { /* ... */ }; template<class K, class V, template<class T> class C = myarray> class Map { C<K> key; C<V> value; // ... }; --end note] 4 A type-parameter defines its identifier to be a type-name (if declared with class or typename) or template-name (if declared with template) in the scope of the template declaration. [Note: because of the name look up rules, a template-parameter that could be interpreted as either a non-type template-parameter or a type-parameter (because its identifier is the name of an already existing class) is taken as a type-parameter. For example, class T { /* ... */ }; int i; template<class T, T i> void f(T t) { T t1 = i; // template-parameters T and i ::T t2 = ::i; // global namespace members T and i } Here, the template f has a type-parameter called T, rather than an unnamed non-type template-parameter of class T. ] 5 A non-type template-parameter shall have one of the following (option- ally cv-qualified) types: --integral or enumeration type, --pointer to object or pointer to function, --reference to object or reference to function, _________________________ 1) Since template template-parameters and template template-arguments are treated as types for descriptive purposes, the terms non-type pa- rameter and non-type argument are used to refer to non-type, non-tem- plate parameters and arguments. --pointer to member. 6 [Note: other types are disallowed either explicitly below or implic- itly by the rules governing the form of template-arguments (_temp.arg_). ] The top-level cv-qualifiers on the template-parameter are ignored when determining its type. 7 A non-type non-reference template-parameter is not an lvalue. It shall not be assigned to or in any other way have its value changed. A non-type non-reference template-parameter cannot have its address taken. When a non-type non-reference template-parameter is used as an initializer for a reference, a temporary is always used. [Example: template<const X& x, int i> void f() { i++; // error: change of template-parameter value &x; // OK &i; // error: address of non-reference template-parameter int& ri = i; // error: non-const reference bound to temporary const int& cri = i; // OK: const reference bound to temporary } --end example] 8 A non-type template-parameter shall not be declared to have floating point, class, or void type. [Example: template<double d> class X; // error template<double* pd> class Y; // OK template<double& rd> class Z; // OK --end example] 9 A non-type template-parameter of type "array of T" or "function returning T" is adjusted to be of type "pointer to T" or "pointer to function returning T", respectively. [Example: template<int *a> struct R { /* ... */ }; template<int b[5]> struct S { /* ... */ }; int *p; R<p> w; // OK S<p> x; // OK due to parameter adjustment int v[5]; R<v> y; // OK due to implicit argument conversion S<v> z; // OK due to both adjustment and conversion --end example] 10A default template-argument is a template-argument (_temp.arg_) speci- fied after = in a template-parameter. A default template-argument may be specified for any kind of template-parameter (type, non-type, tem- plate). A default template-argument may be specified in a class tem- plate declaration or a class template definition. A default template- argument shall not be specified in a function template declaration or a function template definition, nor in the template-parameter-list of the definition of a member of a class template. The set of default template-arguments available for use with a template in a translation unit shall only be provided by the first declaration of the template in that translation unit. 11If a template-parameter has a default template-argument, all subse- quent template-parameters shall have a default template-argument sup- plied. [Example: template<class T1 = int, class T2> class B; // error --end example] 12When parsing a default template-argument for a non-type template- parameter, the first non-nested > is taken as the end of the template- parameter-list rather than a greater-than operator. [Example: template<int i = 3 > 4 > // syntax error class X { /* ... */ }; template<int i = (3 > 4) > // OK class Y { /* ... */ }; --end example] 14.2 Names of template specializations [temp.names] 1 A template specialization (_temp.spec_) can be referred to by a tem- plate-id: template-id: template-name < template-argument-listopt > template-name: identifier template-argument-list: template-argument template-argument-list , template-argument template-argument: assignment-expression type-id id-expression [Note: the name look up rules (_basic.lookup_) are used to associate the use of a name with a template declaration; that is, to identify a name as a template-name. ] 2 +------- BEGIN BOX 2 -------+ See the note in (_temp.param_) about a syntax change here. The gram- mar could be more specific than id-expression for describing template template arguments but that would require some new grammar rules. (bg) +------- END BOX 2 -------+ 3 For a template-name to be explicitly qualified by the template argu- ments, the name must be known to refer to a template. 4 After name look up (_basic.lookup_) finds that a name is a template- name, if this name is followed by a <, the < is always taken as the beginning of a template-argument-list and never as a name followed by the less-than operator. When parsing a template-id, the first non- nested >2) is taken as the end of the template-argument-list rather _________________________ 2) A > that encloses the type-id of a dynamic_cast, static_cast, rein- than a greater-than operator. [Example: template<int i> class X { /* ... */ }; X< 1>2 > x1; // syntax error X<(1>2)> x2; // OK template<class T> class Y { /* ... */ }; Y< X<1> > x3; // OK Y<X<6>> 1> > x4; // OK: Y< X< (6>>1) > > --end example] 5 When the name of a member template specialization appears after . or -> in a postfix-expression, or after nested-name-specifier in a quali- fied-id, and the postfix-expression or qualified-id explicitly depends on a template-parameter (_temp.dep_), the member template name must be prefixed by the keyword template. Otherwise the name is assumed to name a non-template. [Example: class X { public: template<size_t> X* alloc(); template<size_t> static X* adjust(); }; template<class T> void f(T* p) { T* p1 = p->alloc<200>(); // ill-formed: < means less than T* p2 = p->template alloc<200>(); // OK: < starts template argument list T::adjust<100>(); // ill-formed: < means less than T::template adjust<100>(); // OK: < starts explicit qualification } --end example] 6 If a name prefixed by the keyword template is not the name of a member template, the program is ill-formed. [Note: the keyword template may not be applied to non-template members of class templates. ] 7 A template-id that names a class template specialization is a class- name (clause _class_). _________________________ terpret_cast or const_cast, or which encloses the template-arguments of a subsequent template-id, is considered nested for the purpose of this description. 14.3 Template arguments [temp.arg] 1 There are three forms of template-argument, corresponding to the three forms of template-parameter: type, non-type and template. The type and form of each template-argument specified in a template-id shall match the type and form specified for the corresponding parameter declared by the template in its template-parameter-list. [Example: template<class T> class Array { T* v; int sz; public: explicit Array(int); T& operator[](int); T& elem(int i) { return v[i]; } // ... }; Array<int> v1(20); typedef complex<double> dcomplex; // complex is a standard // library template Array<dcomplex> v2(30); Array<dcomplex> v3(40); void bar() { v1[3] = 7; v2[3] = v3.elem(4) = dcomplex(7,8); } --end example] 2 In a template-argument, an ambiguity between a type-id and an expres- sion is resolved to a type-id, regardless of the form of the corre- sponding template-parameter.3) [Example: template<class T> void f(); template<int I> void f(); void g() { f<int()>(); // int() is a type-id: call the first f() } --end example] 3 The name of a template-argument shall be accessible at the point where it is used as a template-argument. [Note: if the name of the tem- plate-argument is accessible at the point where it is used as a tem- plate-argument, there is no further access restriction in the result- ing instantiation where the corresponding template-parameter name is used. ] [Example: _________________________ 3) There is no such ambiguity in a default template-argument because the form of the template-parameter determines the allowable forms of the template-argument. template<class T> class X { static T t; }; class Y { private: struct S { /* ... */ }; X<S> x; // OK: S is accessible // X<Y::S> has a static member of type Y::S // OK: even though Y::S is private }; X<Y::S> y; // error: S not accessible --end example] For a template-argument of class type, the template definition has no special access rights to the inaccessible members of the template argument type. 4 When default template-arguments are used, a template-argument list can be empty. In that case the empty <> brackets shall still be used as the template-argument-list. [Example: template<class T = char> class String; String<>* p; // OK: String<char> String* q; // syntax error --end example] 5 An explicit destructor call (_class.dtor_) for an object that has a type that is a class template specialization may explicitly specify the template-arguments. [Example: template<class T> struct A { ~A(); }; void f(A<int>* p, A<int>* q) { p->A<int>::~A(); // OK: destructor call q->A<int>::~A<int>(); // OK: destructor call } --end example] 6 If the use of a template-argument gives rise to an ill-formed con- struct in the instantiation of a template specialization, the program is ill-formed. 7 When the template in a template-id is an overloaded function template, both non-template functions in the overload set and function templates in the overload set for which the template-arguments do not match the template-parameters are ignored. If none of the function templates have matching template-parameters, the program is ill-formed. 14.3.1 Template type arguments [temp.arg.type] 1 A template-argument for a template-parameter which is a type shall be a type-id. 2 A local type, a type with no linkage, an unnamed type or a type com- pounded from any of these types shall not be used as a template- argument for a template type-parameter. [Example: template <class T> class X { /* ... */ }; void f() { struct S { /* ... */ }; X<S> x3; // error: local type used as template-argument X<S*> x4; // error: pointer to local type used as template-argument } --end example] [Note: a template type argument may be an incomplete type (_basic.types_). ] 3 If a declaration acquires a function type through a type dependent on a template-parameter and this causes a declaration that does not use the syntactic form of a function declarator to have function type, the program is ill-formed. [Example: template<class T> struct A { static T t; }; typedef int function(); A<function> a; // ill-formed: would declare A<function>::t // as a static member function --end example] 14.3.2 Template non-type arguments [temp.arg.nontype] 1 A template-argument for a non-type, non-template template-parameter shall be one of: --an integral constant-expression of integral or enumeration type; or --the name of a non-type template-parameter; or --the name of an object or function with external linkage, including function templates and function template-ids but excluding non- static class members, expressed as id-expression; or --the address of an object or function with external linkage, includ- ing function templates and function template-ids but excluding non- static class members, expressed as & id-expression where the & is optional if the name refers to a function or array; or --a pointer to member expressed as described in _expr.unary.op_ . +------- BEGIN BOX 3 -------+ This was changed editorially to allow template arguments which are overloaded pointers to members, and to clarify that since a set of overloaded functions may include function templates, a function tem- plate may also be used as a template argument. +------- END BOX 3 -------+ 2 [Note: A string literal (_lex.string_) is not an acceptable template- argument because a string literal is an object with internal linkage. [Example: template<class T, char* p> class X { // ... X(); X(const char* q) { /* ... */ } }; X<int,"Studebaker"> x1; // error: string literal as template-argument char p[] = "Vivisectionist"; X<int,p> x2; // OK --end example] --end note] 3 [Note: Addresses of array elements and names or addresses of non- static class members are not acceptable template-arguments. [Example: template<int* p> class X { }; int a[10]; struct S { int m; static int s; } s; X<&a[2]> x3; // error: address of array element X<&s.m> x4; // error: address of non-static member X<&s.s> x5; // error: &S::s must be used X<&S::s> x6; // OK: address of static member --end example] --end note] 4 [Note: Temporaries, unnamed lvalues, and named lvalues that do not have external linkage are not acceptable template-arguments when the corresponding template-parameter has reference type. [Example: template<const int& CRI> struct B { /* ... */ }; B<1> b2; // error: temporary required for template argument int c = 1; B<c> b1; // OK --end example] --end note] 5 The following conversions are performed on each expression used as a non-type template-argument. If a non-type template-argument cannot be converted to the type of the corresponding template-parameter then the program is ill-formed. --for a non-type template-parameter of integral or enumeration type, integral promotions (_conv.prom_) and integral conversions (_conv.integral_) are applied. --for a non-type template-parameter of type pointer to object, quali- fication conversions (_conv.qual_) and the array-to-pointer conver- sion (_conv.array_) are applied. [Note: In particular, neither the null pointer conversion (_conv.ptr_) nor the derived-to-base conver- sion (_conv.ptr_) are applied. Although 0 is a valid template-argu- ment for a non-type template-parameter of integral type, it is not a valid template-argument for a non-type template-parameter of pointer type. ] --For a non-type template-parameter of type reference to object, no conversions apply. The type referred to by the reference may be more cv-qualified than the (otherwise identical) type of the tem- plate-argument. The template-parameter is bound directly to the template-argument, which must be an lvalue. --For a non-type template-parameter of type pointer to function, only the function-to-pointer conversion (_conv.func_) is applied. If the template-argument represents a set of overloaded functions (or a pointer to such), the matching function is selected from the set (_over.over_). --For a non-type template-parameter of type reference to function, no conversions apply. If the template-argument represents a set of overloaded functions, the matching function is selected from the set (_over.over_). --For a non-type template-parameter of type pointer to member func- tion, no conversions apply. If the template-argument represents a set of overloaded member functions, the matching member function is selected from the set (_over.over_). --For a non-type template-parameter of type pointer to data member, qualification conversions (_conv.qual_) are applied. +------- BEGIN BOX 4 -------+ The above list was changed editorially to allow overloaded pointers to members, since there is no reason for this not to parallel ordinary function pointers. (bg) +------- END BOX 4 -------+ [Example: template<const int* pci> struct X { /* ... */ }; int ai[10]; X<ai> xi; // array to pointer and qualification conversions struct Y { /* ... */ }; template<const Y& b> struct Z { /* ... */ }; Y y; Z<y> z; // no conversion, but note extra cv-qualification template<int (&pa)[5]> struct W { /* ... */ }; int b[5]; W<b> w; // no conversion void f(char); void f(int); template<void (*pf)(int)> struct A { /* ... */ }; A<&f> a; // selects f(int) --end example] 14.3.3 Template template arguments [temp.arg.template] 1 A template-argument for a template template-parameter shall be the name of class template, expressed as id-expression. 2 Any partial specializations (_temp.class.spec_) associated with the class template are considered when a specialization based on the tem- plate template-parameter is instantiated. If a specialization is not visible at the point of instantiation, and it would have been selected had it been visible, the program is ill-formed; no diagnostic required. [Example: template<class T> class A { // primary template int x; }; template<class T> class A<T*> { // partial specialization long x; }; template<template<class U> class V> class C { V<int> y; V<int*> z; }; C<A> c; // V<int> within C<A> uses the primary template, // so c.y.x has type int // V<int*> within C<A> uses the partial specialization, // so c.z.x has type long --end example] 14.4 Type equivalence [temp.type] 1 Two template-ids refer to the same class or function if their template names are identical, they refer to the same template, their type tem- plate-arguments are the same type, their non-type template-arguments of integral or enumeration type have identical values, their non-type template-arguments of pointer or reference type refer to the same external object or function, and their template template-arguments refer to the same template. [Example: template<class E, int size> class buffer { /* ... */ }; buffer<char,2*512> x; buffer<char,1024> y; declares x and y to be of the same type, and template<class T, void(*err_fct)()> class list { /* ... */ }; list<int,&error_handler1> x1; list<int,&error_handler2> x2; list<int,&error_handler2> x3; list<char,&error_handler2> x4; declares x2 and x3 to be of the same type. Their type differs from the types of x1 and x4. ] 14.5 Template declarations [temp.decls] 1 A template-id, that is, the template-name followed by a template-argu- ment-list shall not be specified in the declaration of a primary tem- plate declaration. [Example: template<class T1, class T2, int I> class A<T1, T2, I> { }; // error template<class T1, int I> void sort<T1, I>(T1 data[I]); // error --end example] [Note: however, this syntax is allowed in class tem- plate partial specializations (_temp.class.spec_). ] 2 For purposes of name lookup and instantiation, default arguments of function templates and default arguments of member functions of class templates are considered definitions; each default argument is a sepa- rate definition which is unrelated to the function template definition or to any other default arguments. 14.5.1 Class templates [temp.class] 1 A class template defines the layout and operations for an unbounded set of related types. [Example: a single class template List might provide a common definition for list of int, list of float, and list of pointers to Shapes. ] 2 [Example: An array class template might be declared like this: template<class T> class Array { T* v; int sz; public: explicit Array(int); T& operator[](int); T& elem(int i) { return v[i]; } // ... }; The prefix template <class T> specifies that a template is being declared and that a type-name T will be used in the declaration. In other words, Array is a parameterized type with T as its parameter. ] 3 When a member function, a member class, a static data member or a mem- ber template of a class template is defined outside of the class template definition, the member definition is defined as a template definition in which the template-parameters are those of the class template. The names of the template parameters used in the definition of the member may be different from the template parameter names used in the class template definition. The template argument list follow- ing the class template name in the member definition shall name the parameters in the same order as the one used in the template parameter list of the member. [Example: template<class T1, class T2> struct A { void f1(); void f2(); }; template<class T2, class T1> void A<T2,T1>::f1() { } //OK template<class T2, class T1> void A<T1,T2>::f2() { } //error --end example] 4 +------- BEGIN BOX 5 -------+ The following paragraph was added editorially in response to core issue 881: What class-key can be used in the declarations of explicit instantatiations, explicit specializations and partial specializa- tions? Especially wrt the union class-key. +------- END BOX 5 -------+ In a redeclaration, partial specialiation, explicit specialization or explicit instantiation of a class template, the class-key shall agree in kind with the original class template declaration (_dcl.type.elab_). 14.5.1.1 Member functions of class templates [temp.mem.func] 1 A member function template may be defined outside of the class tem- plate definition in which it is declared. [Example: template<class T> class Array { T* v; int sz; public: explicit Array(int); T& operator[](int); T& elem(int i) { return v[i]; } // ... }; declares three function templates. The subscript function might be defined like this: template<class T> T& Array<T>::operator[](int i) { if (i<0 || sz<=i) error("Array: range error"); return v[i]; } --end example] 2 The template-arguments for a member function of a class template are determined by the template-arguments of the type of the object for which the member function is called. [Example: the template-argument for Array<T>::operator[]() will be determined by the Array to which the subscripting operation is applied. Array<int> v1(20); Array<dcomplex> v2(30); v1[3] = 7; // Array<int>::operator[]() v2[3] = dcomplex(7,8); // Array<dcomplex>::operator[]() --end example] 14.5.1.2 Member classes of class templates [temp.mem.class] 1 A class member of a class template may be defined outside the class template definition in which it is declared. [Note: the class member must be defined before its first use that requires a an instantiation (_temp.inst_). For example, template<class T> struct A { class B; }; A<int>::B* b1; // OK: requires A to be defined but not A::B template<class T> class A<T>::B { }; A<int>::B b2; // OK: requires A::B to be defined --end note] 14.5.1.3 Static data members of class templates [temp.static] 1 A definition for a static data member may be provided in a namespace scope enclosing the definition of the static member's class template. [Example: template<class T> class X { static T s; }; template<class T> T X<T>::s = 0; --end example] 14.5.2 Member templates [temp.mem] 1 A template can be declared within a class or class template; such a template is called a member template. A member template can be defined within or outside its class definition or class template defi- nition. A member template of a class template that is defined outside of its class template definition shall be specified with the template- parameters of the class template followed by the template-parameters of the member template. [Example: template<class T> class string { public: template<class T2> int compare(const T2&); template<class T2> string(const string<T2>& s) { /* ... */ } // ... }; template<class T> template<class T2> int string<T>::compare(const T2& s) { // ... } --end example] 2 A local class shall not have member templates. Access control rules (clause _class.access_) apply to member template names. A destructor shall not be a member template. A normal (non-template) member func- tion with a given name and type and a member function template of the same name, which could be used to generate a specialization of the same type, can both be declared in a class. When both exist, a use of that name and type refers to the non-template member unless an explicit template argument list is supplied. [Example: template <class T> struct A { void f(int); template <class T2> void f(T2); }; template <> void A<int>::f(int) { } // non-template member template <> template <> void A<int>::f<>(int) { } // template member int main() { A<char> ac; ac.f(1); // non-template ac.f('c'); // template ac.f<>(1); // template } --end example] 3 A member function template shall not be virtual. [Example: template <class T> struct AA { template <class C> virtual void g(C); // error virtual void f(); // OK }; --end example] 4 A specialization of a member function template does not override a virtual function from a base class. [Example: class B { virtual void f(int); }; class D : public B { template <class T> void f(T); // does not override B::f(int) void f(int i) { f<>(i); } // overriding function that calls // the template instantiation }; --end example] 5 A specialization of a template conversion function is referenced in the same way as a non-template conversion function that converts to the same type. [Example: struct A { template <class T> operator T*(); }; template <class T> A::operator T*(){ return 0; } template <> A::operator char*(){ return 0; } // specialization template A::operator void*(); // explicit instantiation int main() { A a; int* ip; ip = a.operator int*(); // explicit call to template operator // A::operator int*() } --end example] [Note: because the explicit template argument list follows the function template name, and because conversion member function templates and constructor member function templates are called without using a function name, there is no way to provide an explicit template argument list for these function templates. ] 6 A specialization of a template conversion function is not found by name lookup. Instead, any template conversion functions visible in the context of the use are considered. For each such operator, if argument deduction succeeds (_temp.deduct.conv_), the resulting spe- cialization is used as if found by name lookup. 7 A using-declaration in a derived class cannot refer to a specializa- tion of a template conversion function in a base class. 8 If more than one conversion template can produce the required type, the partial ordering rules (_temp.func.order_) are used to select the "most specialized" version of the template that can produce the required type. As with other conversion functions, the type of the implicit this parameter is not considered. [Note: members of base classes are considered equally with members of the derived class, except that a derived class conversion function hides a base class conversion function that converts to the same type. --end note] 14.5.3 Friends [temp.friend] 1 A friend of a class template can be a template, a specialization of a function template or class template, or an ordinary (non-template) function or class. For a friend declaration that is not a template declaration, if the name of the friend is a template-id, the friend declaration refers to the specialization(s) of a class or function template; otherwise, the friend refers to an ordinary class or func- tion. [Example: template<class T> class task; template<class T> task<T>* preempt(task<T>*); template<class T> class task { // ... friend void next_time(); friend void process(task<T>*); friend task<T>* preempt<T>(task<T>*); template<class C> friend int func(C); friend class task<int>; template<class P> friend class frd; // ... }; Here, each specialization of the task class template has the function next_time as a friend; because process does not have explicit tem- plate-arguments, each specialization of the task class template has an appropriately typed function process as a friend, and this friend is not a function template specialization; because the friend preempt has an explicit template-argument <T>, each specialization of the task class template has the appropriate specialization of the function tem- plate preempt as a friend; and each specialization of the task class template has all specializations of the function template func as friends. Similarly, each specialization of the task class template has the class template specialization task<int> as a friend, and has all specializations of the class template frd as friends. ] +------- BEGIN BOX 6 -------+ core issue 890: John Spicer believes that if the friend declaration has a declarator that is qualified, then the friend declaration should be able to refer to a previously declared template even though explicit template arguments are not specified. +------- END BOX 6 -------+ 2 A friend template may be declared within a non-template class. A friend function template may be defined within a non-template class. In these cases, all specializations of the class or function template are friends of the class granting friendship. [Example: class A { template<class T> friend class B; // OK template<class T> friend void f(T){ /* ... */ } // OK }; --end example] 3 A template friend declaration specifies that all specializations of that template, whether they are implicitly instantiated (_temp.inst_), partially specialized (_temp.class.spec_) or explicitly specialized (_temp.expl.spec_), are friends of the class containing the template friend declaration. [Example: class X { template<class T> friend struct A; class Y { }; }; template<class T> struct A { X::Y ab; }; //OK template<class T> struct A<T*> { X::Y ab; }; //OK --end example] 4 When a function is defined in a friend function declaration in a class template, the function is defined when the class template is first instantiated. The function is defined even if it is never used. [Note: if the function definition is ill-formed for a given special- ization of the enclosing class template, the program is ill-formed even if the function is never used. ] 5 A member of a class template may be declared to be a friend of a non- template class. In this case, the corresponding member of every spe- cialization of the class template is a friend of the class granting friendship. [Example: template<class T> struct A { struct B { }; void f(); }; class C { template<class T> friend struct A<T>::B; template<class T> friend void A<T>::f(); }; --end example] 6 [Note: a friend declaration may first declare a member of an enclosing namespace scope (_temp.inject_). ] 7 A friend template shall not be declared in a local class. 8 Friend declarations shall not declare partial specializations. [Exam- ple: template<class T> class A { }; class X { template<class T> friend class A<T*>; // error }; --end example] 9 When a friend declaration refers to a specialization of a function template, the function parameter declarations shall not include default arguments, nor shall the inline specifier be used in such a declaration. 14.5.4 Class template partial specializations [temp.class.spec] 1 A primary class template declaration is one in which the class tem- plate name is an identifier. A template declaration in which the class template name is a template-id, is a partial specialization of the class template named in the template-id. A partial specialization of a class template provides an alternative definition of the template that is used instead of the primary definition when the arguments in a specialization match those given in the partial specialization (_temp.class.spec.match_). The primary template shall be declared before any specializations of that template. If a template is par- tially specialized then that partial specialization shall be declared before the first use of that partial specialization that would cause an implicit instantiation to take place, in every translation unit in which such a use occurs. +------- BEGIN BOX 7 -------+ The following change was voted in at the July 1997 meeting, but there may still be some controversy. The problem is that it is not gener- ally possible to provide a partial specialization of a template in the context of the definition. For more details and an example see the other editorial box on NB comment L7052 in subclause _temp.spec_. The change in question is between this and the next editorial box. +------- END BOX 7 -------+ 2 When a partial specialization is used within the instantiation of an exported template, and the unspecialized template name is non-depen- dent in the exported template, a declaration of the partial special- ization must be declared before the definition of the exported tem- plate, in the translation unit containing that definition. A similar restriction applies to explicit specialization; see _temp.spec_. +------- BEGIN BOX 8 -------+ End of questionable change based on L7052. +------- END BOX 8 -------+ 3 Each class template partial specialization is a distinct template and definitions shall be provided for the members of a template partial specialization (_temp.class.spec.mfunc_). 4 [Example: template<class T1, class T2, int I> class A { }; // #1 template<class T, int I> class A<T, T*, I> { }; // #2 template<class T1, class T2, int I> class A<T1*, T2, I> { }; // #3 template<class T> class A<int, T*, 5> { }; // #4 template<class T1, class T2, int I> class A<T1, T2*, I> { }; // #5 The first declaration declares the primary (unspecialized) class tem- plate. The second and subsequent declarations declare partial spe- cializations of the primary template. ] 5 The template parameters are specified in the angle bracket enclosed list that immediately follows the keyword template. For partial spe- cializations, the template argument list is explicitly written immedi- ately following the class template name. For primary templates, this list is implicitly described by the template parameter list. Specifi- cally, the order of the template arguments is the sequence in which they appear in the template parameter list. [Example: the template argument list for the primary template in the example above is <T1, T2, I>. ] [Note: the template argument list shall not be specified in the primary template declaration. For example, template<class T1, class T2, int I> class A<T1, T2, I> { }; // error --end note] 6 A class template partial specialization may be declared or redeclared in any namespace scope in which its definition may be defined (_temp.class_ and _temp.mem_). [Example: template<class T> struct A { class C { template<class T2> struct B { }; }; }; // partial specialization of A<T>::C::B<T2> template<class T> template<class T2> struct A<T>::C::B<T2*> { }; A<short>::C::B<int*> absip; // uses partial specialization --end example] 7 Partial specialization declarations themselves are not found by name lookup. Rather, when the primary template name is used, any previousy declared partial specializations of the primary template are also con- sidered. One consequence is that a using-declaration which refers to a class template does not restrict the set of partial specializations which may be found through the using-declaration. [Example: namespace N { template<class T1, class T2> class A { }; // primary template } using N::A; // refers to the primary template namespace N { template<class T> class A<T, T*> { }; // partial specialization } A<int,int*> a; // uses the partial specialization, which is found through // the using declaration which refers to the primary template --end example] 8 A non-type argument is non-specialized if it is the name of a non-type parameter. All other non-type arguments are specialized. 9 Within the argument list of a class template partial specialization, the following restrictions apply: --A partially specialized non-type argument expression shall not involve a template parameter of the partial specialization except when the argument expression is a simple identifier. [Example: template <int I, int J> struct A {}; template <int I> struct A<I+5, I*2> {}; // error template <int I, int J> struct B {}; template <int I> struct B<I, I> {}; // OK --end example] --The type of a template parameter corresponding to a specialized non- type argument shall not be dependent on a parameter of the specialization. [Example: template <class T, T t> struct C {}; template <class T> struct C<T, 1>; // error template< int X, int (*array_ptr)[X] > class A {}; int array[5]; template< int X > class A<X,&array> { }; // error --end example] --The argument list of the specialization shall not be identical to the implicit argument list of the primary template. 10The template parameter list of a specialization shall not contain default template argument values.4) 14.5.4.1 Matching of class template [temp.class.spec.match] partial specializations 1 When a class template is used in a context that requires an instantia- tion of the class, it is necessary to determine whether the instantia- tion is to be generated using the primary template or one of the par- tial specializations. This is done by matching the template arguments of the class template specialization with the template argument lists of the partial specializations. --If exactly one matching specialization is found, the instantiation is generated from that specialization. --If more than one matching specialization is found, the partial order rules (_temp.class.order_) are used to determine whether one of the specializations is more specialized than the others. If none of the specializations is more specialized than all of the other matching specializations, then the use of the class template is ambiguous and the program is ill-formed. --If no matches are found, the instantiation is generated from the primary template. 2 A partial specialization matches a given actual template argument list if the template arguments of the partial specialization can be deduced from the actual template argument list (_temp.deduct_). [Example: A<int, int, 1> a1; // uses #1 A<int, int*, 1> a2; // uses #2, T is int, I is 1 A<int, char*, 5> a3; // uses #4, T is char A<int, char*, 1> a4; // uses #5, T1 is int, T2 is char, I is 1 A<int*, int*, 2> a5; // ambiguous: matches #3 and #5 --end example] 3 A non-type template argument can also be deduced from the value of an actual template argument of a non-type parameter of the primary tem- plate. [Example: the declaration of a2 above. ] _________________________ 4) There is no way in which they could be used. 4 In a type name that refers to a class template specialization, (e.g., A<int, int, 1>) the argument list must match the template parameter list of the primary template. The template arguments of a specializa- tion are deduced from the arguments of the primary template. 14.5.4.2 Partial ordering of class template [temp.class.order] specializations 1 For two class template partial specializations, the first is at least as specialized as the second if, given the following rewrite to two function templates, the first function template is at least as spe- cialized as the second according to the ordering rules for function templates (_temp.func.order_): --the first function template has the same template parameters as the first partial specialization and has a single function parameter whose type is a class template specialization with the template arguments of the first partial specialization, and --the second function template has the same template parameters as the second partial specialization and has a single function parameter whose type is a class template specialization with the template arguments of the second partial specialization. 2 [Example: template<int I, int J, class T> class X { }; template<int I, int J> class X<I, J, int> { }; // #1 template<int I> class X<I, I, int> { }; // #2 template<int I, int J> void f(X<I, J, int>); // #A template<int I> void f(X<I, I, int>); // #B The partial specialization #2 is more specialized than the partial specialization #1 because the function template #B is more specialized than the function template #A according to the ordering rules for function templates. ] 14.5.4.3 Members of class template [temp.class.spec.mfunc] specializations 1 The template parameter list of a member of a class template partial specialization shall match the template parameter list of the class template partial specialization. The template argument list of a mem- ber of a class template partial specialization shall match the tem- plate argument list of the class template partial specialization. A class template specialization is a distinct template. The members of the class template partial specialization are unrelated to the members of the primary template. Class template partial specialization mem- bers that are used in a way that requires a definition shall be defined; the definitions of members of the primary template are never used as definitions for members of a class template partial special- ization. An explicit specialization of a member of a class template partial specialization is declared in the same way as an explicit spe- cialization of the primary template. [Example: // primary template template<class T, int I> struct A { void f(); }; template<class T, int I> void A<T,I>::f() { } // class template partial specialization template<class T> struct A<T,2> { void f(); void g(); void h(); }; // member of class template partial specialization template<class T> void A<T,2>::g() { } // explicit specialization template<> void A<char,2>::h() { } int main() { A<char,0> a0; A<char,2> a2; a0.f(); // OK, uses definition of primary template's member a2.g(); // OK, uses definition of // partial specialization's member a2.h(); // OK, uses definition of // explicit specialization's member a2.f(); // ill-formed, no definition of f for A<T,2> // the primary template is not used here } --end example] 2 If a member template of a class template is partially specialized, the member template partial specializations are member templates of the enclosing class template; if the enclosing class template is instanti- ated (_temp.inst_, _temp.explicit_), a declaration for every member template partial specialization is also instantiated as part of creat- ing the members of the class template specialization. If the primary member template is explicitly specialized for a given (implicit) spe- cialization of the enclosing class template, the partial specializa- tions of the member template are ignored for this specialization of the enclosing class template. If a partial specialization of the mem- ber template is explicitly specialized for a given (implicit) special- ization of the enclosing class template, the primary member template and its other partial specializations are still considered for this specialization of the enclosing class template. [Example: template<class T> struct A { template<class T2> struct B {}; // #1 template<class T2> struct B<T2*> {}; // #2 }; template<> template<class T2> struct A<short>::B {}; // #3 A<char>::B<int*> abcip; // uses #2 A<short>::B<int*> absip; // uses #3 A<char>::B<int> abci; // uses #1 --end example] 14.5.5 Function templates [temp.fct] 1 A function template defines an unbounded set of related functions. [Example: a family of sort functions might be declared like this: template<class T> class Array { }; template<class T> void sort(Array<T>&); --end example] 2 A function template can be overloaded with other function templates and with normal (non-template) functions. A normal function is not related to a function template (i.e., it is never considered to be a specialization), even if it has the same name and type as a poten- tially generated function template specialization.5) 14.5.5.1 Function template overloading [temp.over.link] 1 It is possible to overload function templates so that two different function template specializations have the same type. [Example: // file1.c // file2.c template<class T> template<class T> void f(T*); void f(T); void g(int* p) { void h(int* p) { f(p); // call f(p); // call // f<int>(int*) // f<int*>(int*) } } --end example] 2 Such specializations are distinct functions and do not violate the one definition rule (_basic.def.odr_). 3 The signature of a function template specialization consists of the signature of the function template and of the actual template argu- ments (whether explicitly specified or deduced). _________________________ 5) That is, declarations of non-template functions do not merely guide overload resolution of template functions with the same name. If such a non-template function is used in a program, it must be defined; it will not be implicitly instantiated using the function template defi- nition. 4 The signature of a function template consists of its function signa- ture, its return type and its template parameter list. The names of the template parameters are significant only for establishing the relationship between the template parameters and the rest of the sig- nature. [Note: two distinct function templates may have identical function return types and function parameter lists, even if overload resolution alone cannot distinguish them. template<class T> void f(); template<int I> void f(); //OK: overloads the first template // distinguishable with an explicit template argument list --end note] 5 When an expression that references a template parameter is used in the function parameter list or the return type in the declaration of a function template, the expression that references the template parame- ter is part of the signature of the function template. This is neces- sary to permit a declaration of a function template in one translation unit to be linked with another declaration of the function template in another translation unit and, conversely, to ensure that function tem- plates that are intended to be distinct are not linked with one another. [Example: template <int I, int J> A<I+J> f(A<I>, A<J>); // #1 template <int K, int L> A<K+L> f(A<K>, A<L>); // same as #1 template <int I, int J> A<I-J> f(A<I>, A<J>); // different from #1 --end example] [Note: Most expressions that use template parameters use non-type template parameters, but it is possible for an expression to reference a type parameter. For example, a template type parameter can be used in the sizeof operator. ] 6 Two expressions involving template parameters are considered equiva- lent if two function definitions containing the expressions would sat- isfy the one definition rule (_basic.def.odr_), except that the tokens used to name the template parameters may differ as long as a token used to name a template parameter in one expression is replaced by another token that names the same template parameter in the other expression. [Example: template <int I, int J> void f(A<I+J>); // #1 template <int K, int L> void f(A<K+L>); // same as #1 --end example] Two expressions involving template parameters that are not equivalent are functionally equivalent if, for any given set of template arguments, the evaluation of the expression results in the same value. 7 Two function templates are equivalent if they are declared in the same scope, have the same name, have identical template parameter lists, and have return types and parameter lists that are equivalent using the rules described above to compare expressions involving non-type template parameters. Two function templates are functionally equiva- lent if they are equivalent except that one or more non-type expres- sions that involve template parameters in the return types and parame- ter lists are functionally equivalent using the rules described above to compare expressions involving non-type template parameters. If a program contains declarations of function templates that are function- ally equivalent but not equivalent, the program is ill-formed; no diagnostic is required. 8 [Note: This rule guarantees that equivalent declarations will be linked with one another, while not requiring implementations to use heroic efforts to guarantee that functionally equivalent declarations will be treated as distinct. For example, the last two declarations are functionally equivalent and would cause a program to be ill- formed: // Guaranteed to be the same template <int I> void f(A<I>, A<I+10>); template <int I> void f(A<I>, A<I+10>); // Guaranteed to be different template <int I> void f(A<I>, A<I+10>); template <int I> void f(A<I>, A<I+11>); // Ill-formed, no diagnostic required template <int I> void f(A<I>, A<I+10>); template <int I> void f(A<I>, A<I+1+2+3+4>); --end note] 14.5.5.2 Partial ordering of function [temp.func.order] templates 1 If a function template is overloaded, the use of a function template specialization might be ambiguous because template argument deduction (_temp.deduct_) may associate the function template specialization with more than one function template declaration. Partial ordering of overloaded function template declarations is used in the following contexts to select the function template to which a function template specialization refers: --during overload resolution for a call to a function template spe- cialization (_over.match.best_); --when the address of a function template specialization is taken; --when a placement operator delete that is a template function spe- cialization is selected to match a placement operator new (_basic.stc.dynamic.deallocation_, _expr.new_); --when a friend function declaration (_temp.friend_), an explicit instantiation (_temp.explicit_) or an explicit specialization (_temp.expl.spec_) refers to a function template specialization. 2 Given two overloaded function templates, whether one is more special- ized than another can be determined by transforming each template in turn and using argument deduction (_temp.deduct_) to compare it to the other. 3 The transformation used is: --For each type template parameter, synthesize a unique type and sub- stitute that for each occurrence of that parameter in the function parameter list, or for a template conversion function, in the return type. --For each non-type template parameter, synthesize a unique value of the appropriate type and substitute that for each occurrence of that parameter in the function parameter list, or for a template conver- sion function, in the return type. +------- BEGIN BOX 9 -------+ Erwin mentioned the need to describe the transformation above for tem- plate template parameters. +------- END BOX 9 -------+ 4 Using the transformed function parameter list, perform argument deduc- tion against the other function template. The transformed template is at least as specialized as the other if, and only if, the deduction succeeds and the deduced parameter types are an exact match (so the deduction does not rely on implicit conversions). 5 A template is more specialized than another if, and only if, it is at least as specialized as the other template and that template is not at least as specialized as the first. [Example: template<class T> struct A { A(); }; template<class T> void f(T); template<class T> void f(T*); template<class T> void f(const T*); template<class T> void g(T); template<class T> void g(T&); template<class T> void h(const T&); template<class T> void h(A<T>&); void m() { const int *p; f(p); // f(const T*) is more specialized than f(T) or f(T*) float x; g(x); // Ambiguous: g(T) or g(T&) A<int> z; h(z); // overload resolution selects h(A<T>&) const A<int> z2; h(z2); // h(const T&) is called because h(A<T>&) is not callable } --end example] 6 The presence of unused ellipsis and default arguments has no effect on the partial ordering of function templates. [Example: template<class T> void f(T); // #1 template<class T> void f(T*, int=1); // #2 template<class T> void g(T); // #3 template<class T> void g(T*, ...); // #4 int main() { int* ip; f(ip); // calls #2 g(ip); // calls #4 } --end example] 14.6 Name resolution [temp.res] 1 Three kinds of names can be used within a template definition: --The name of the template itself, and names declared within the tem- plate itself. --Names dependent on a template-parameter (_temp.dep_). --Names from scopes which are visible within the template definition. 2 A name used in a template declaration or definition and that is depen- dent on a template-parameter is assumed not to name a type unless the applicable name lookup finds a type name or the name is qualified by the keyword typename. [Example: // no B declared here class X; template<class T> class Y { class Z; // forward declaration of member class void f() { X* a1; // declare pointer to X T* a2; // declare pointer to T Y* a3; // declare pointer to Y<T> Z* a4; // declare pointer to Z typedef typename T::A TA; TA* a5; // declare pointer to T's A typename T::A* a6; // declare pointer to T's A T::A* a7; // T::A is not a type name: // multiply T::A by a7; ill-formed, // no visible declaration of a7 B* a8; // B is not a type name: // multiply B by a8; ill-formed, // no visible declarations of B and a8 } }; --end example] 3 A qualified-name that refers to a type and that depends on a template- parameter (_temp.dep_) shall be prefixed by the keyword typename to indicate that the qualified-name denotes a type, forming an elabo- rated-type-specifier (_dcl.type.elab_). elaborated-type-specifier: . . . typename ::opt nested-name-specifier identifier typename ::opt nested-name-specifier identifier < template-argument-list > . . . 4 If a specialization of a template is instantiated for a set of tem- plate-arguments such that the qualified-name prefixed by typename does not denote a type, the specialization is ill-formed. The usual quali- fied name lookup (_basic.lookup.qual_) is used to find the qualified- name even in the presence of typename. [Example: struct A { struct X { }; int X; }; template<class T> void f(T t) { typename T::X x; // ill-formed: finds the data member X // not the member type X } --end example] 5 The keyword typename shall only be used in template declarations and definitions, including in the return type of a function template or member function template, in the return type for the definition of a member function of a class template or of a class nested within a class template, and in the type-specifier for the definition of a static member of a class template or of a class nested within a class template. The keyword typename shall only be applied to qualified names, but those names need not be dependent. The keyword typename is not permitted in a base-specifier or in a mem-initializer; in these contexts a qualified-name that depends on a template-parameter (_temp.dep_) is implicitly assumed to be a type name. 6 Within the definition of a class template or within the definition of a member of a class template, the keyword typename is not required when referring to the unqualified name of a previously declared member of the class template that declares a type. The keyword typename shall always be specified when the member is referred to using a qual- ified name, even if the qualifier is simply the class template name. [Example: template<class T> struct A { typedef int B; A::B b; // ill-formed: typename required before A::B void f(A<T>::B); // ill-formed: typename required before A<T>::B typename A::B g(); // OK }; The keyword typename is required whether the qualified name is A or A<T> because A or A<T> are synonyms within a class template with the parameter list <T>. ] 7 Knowing which names are type names allows the syntax of every template definition to be checked. No diagnostic shall be issued for a tem- plate definition for which a valid specialization can be generated. If no valid specialization can be generated for a template definition, and that template is not instantiated, the template definition is ill- formed, no diagnostic required. [Note: if a template is instantiated, errors will be diagnosed according to the other rules in this Stan- dard. Exactly when these errors are diagnosed is a quality of imple- mentation issue. ] [Example: int j; template<class T> class X { // ... void f(T t, int i, char* p) { t = i; // diagnosed if X::f is instantiated // and the assignment to t is an error p = i; // may be diagnosed even if X::f is // not instantiated p = j; // may be diagnosed even if X::f is // not instantiated } void g(T t) { +; // may be diagnosed even if X::g is // not instantiated } }; --end example] 8 When looking for the declaration of a name used in a template defini- tion, the usual lookup rules (_basic.lookup.unqual_, _basic.lookup.koenig_) are used for nondependent names. The lookup of names dependent on the template parameters is postponed until the actual template argument is known (_temp.dep_). [Example: #include <iostream> using namespace std; template<class T> class Set { T* p; int cnt; public: Set(); Set<T>(const Set<T>&); void printall() { for (int i = 0; i<cnt; i++) cout << p[i] << '\n'; } // ... }; in the example, i is the local variable i declared in printall, cnt is the member cnt declared in Set, and cout is the standard output stream declared in iostream. However, not every declaration can be found this way; the resolution of some names must be postponed until the actual template-arguments are known. For example, even though the name operator<< is known within the definition of printall() and a declaration of it can be found in <iostream>, the actual declaration of operator<< needed to print p[i] cannot be known until it is known what type T is (_temp.dep_). ] 9 If a name does not depend on a template-parameter (as defined in _temp.dep_), a declaration (or set of declarations) for that name shall be in scope at the point where the name appears in the template definition; the name is bound to the declaration (or declarations) found at that point and this binding is not affected by declarations that are visible at the point of instantiation. [Example: void f(char); template<class T> void g(T t) { f(1); // f(char) f(T(1)); // dependent f(t); // dependent dd++; // not dependent // error: declaration for dd not found } void f(int); double dd; void h() { g(2); // will cause one call of f(char) followed // by two calls of f(int) g('a'); // will cause three calls of f(char) } --end example] 10[Note: for purposes of name lookup, default arguments of function tem- plates and default arguments of member functions of class templates are considered definitions (_temp.decls_). --end note] 14.6.1 Locally declared names [temp.local] 1 Within the scope of a class template, when the name of the template is neither qualified nor followed by <, it is equivalent to the name of the template followed by the template-parameters enclosed in <>. [Example: the constructor for Set can be referred to as Set() or Set<T>(). ] Other specializations (_temp.expl.spec_) of the class can be referred to by explicitly qualifying the template name with the appropriate template-arguments. [Example: template<class T> class X { X* p; // meaning X<T> X<T>* p2; X<int>* p3; }; --end example] 2 Within the scope of a class template specialization, when the name of the template is neither qualified nor followed by <, it is equivalent to the name of the template followed by the template-arguments enclosed in <>. [Example: template<class T> class Y; template<> class Y<int> { Y* p; // meaning Y<int> Y<char>* q; // meaning Y<char> }; --end example] 3 The scope of a template-parameter extends from its point of declara- tion until the end of its template. A template-parameter hides any entity with the same name in the enclosing scope. [Note: this implies that a template-parameter can be used in the declaration of subsequent template-parameters and their default arguments but cannot be used in preceding template-parameters or their default arguments. For exam- ple, template<class T, T* p, class U = T> class X { /* ... */ }; template<class T> void f(T* p = new T); This also implies that a template-parameter can be used in the speci- fication of base classes. For example, template<class T> class X : public Array<T> { /* ... */ }; template<class T> class Y : public T { /* ... */ }; The use of a template-parameter as a base class implies that a class used as a template-argument must be defined and not just declared when the class template is instantiated. ] 4 A template-parameter shall not be redeclared within its scope (includ- ing nested scopes). A template-parameter shall not have the same name as the template name. [Example: template<class T, int i> class Y { int T; // error: template-parameter redeclared void f() { char T; // error: template-parameter redeclared } }; template<class X> class X; // error: template-parameter redeclared --end example] 5 In the definition of a member of a class template that appears outside of the class template definition, the name of a member of this tem- plate hides the name of a template-parameter. [Example: template<class T> struct A { struct B { /* ... */ }; void f(); }; template<class B> void A<B>::f() { B b; // A's B, not the template parameter } --end example] 6 In the definition of a member of a class template that appears outside of the namespace containing the class template definition, the name of a template-parameter hides the name of a member of this namespace. [Example: namespace N { class C { }; template<class T> class B { void f(T); }; } template<class C> void N::B<C>::f(C) { C b; // C is the template parameter, not N::C } --end example] 7 +------- BEGIN BOX 10 -------+ The following paragraph was changed editorially. The old text said: 8 "In the definition of a class template or in the definition of a mem- ber of such a template that appears outside of the template defini- tion, the name of a base class and, if the base class does not depend on a template-parameter (_temp.dep_), the name of a base class member hides the name of a template-parameter with the same name." 9 Since the part about the base class name itself says nothing about dependency, this implies that a dependent base class name also hides a template parameter name. For example: template<class T> struct A { }; template<class A> struct X : ::A<T> { A a; // what is the meaning of A here? }; The "name" of the base class is A<T>, not A. The base class name itself cannot hide anything. The template name used to form it could hide the template parameter, but is this really appropriate? It seems that the intent of the original paragraph was to apply the "class name injection" rule, but that rule would not apply in the dependent base class case. The revised paragraph below corrects this problem. (bg) +------- END BOX 10 -------+ In the definition of a class template or in the definition of a member of such a template that appears outside of the template definition, for each base class which does not depend on a template-parameter (_temp.dep_), if the name of the base class or the name of a member of the base class is the same as the name of a template-parameter, the base class name or member name hides the template-parameter name (_basic.scope.hiding_). [Example: struct A { struct B { /* ... */ }; int a; int Y; }; template<class B, class a> struct X : A { B b; // A's B a b; // error: A's a isn't a type name }; --end example] 14.6.2 Dependent names [temp.dep] 1 Inside a template, some constructs have semantics which may differ from one instantiation to another. Such a construct depends on the template parameters. In particular, types and expressions may depend on the type and or value of template parameters (as determined by the template arguments) and this determines the context for name lookup for certain names. Expressions may be type-dependent (on the type of a template parameter) or value-dependent (on the value of a non-type template parameter). In an expression of the form: postfix-expression ( expression-listopt ) where the postfix-expression is an identifier, the identifier denotes a dependent name if and only if any of the expressions in the expres- sion-list is a type-dependent expression (_temp.dep.expr_). If an operand of an operator is a type-dependent expression, the operator also denotes a dependent name. Such names are unbound and are looked up at the point of the template instantiation (_temp.point_) in both the context of the template definition and the context of the point of instantiation. 2 [Example: template<class T> struct X : B<T> { typename T::A* pa; void f(B<T>* pb) { static int i = B<T>::i; pb->j++; } }; the base class name B<T>, the type name T::A, the names B<T>::i and pb->j explicitly depend on the template-parameter. --end example] 3 In the definition of a class template or in the definition of a member of such a template that appears outside of the template definition, if a base class of this template depends on a template-parameter, the base class scope is not examined during name look up until the class template is instantiated. [Example: typedef double A; template<class T> B { typedef int A; }; template<class T> struct X : B<T> { A a; // a has type double }; The type name A in the definition of X<T> binds to the typedef name defined in the global namespace scope, not to the typedef name defined in the base class B<T>. ] 4 If a base class is a dependent type, a member of that class cannot hide a name declared within a template, or a name from the template's enclosing scopes. [Example: struct A { struct B { /* ... */ }; int a; int Y; }; int a; template<class T> struct Y : T { struct B { /* ... */ }; B b; // The B defined in Y void f(int i) { a = i; } // ::a Y* p; // Y<T> }; Y<A> ya; The members A::B, A::a, and A::Y of the template argument A do not affect the binding of names in Y<A>. ] 14.6.2.1 Dependent types [temp.dep.type] 1 A type is dependent if it is --a template parameter, --a qualified-id with a nested-name-specifier which contains a class- name that names a dependent type or whose unqualified-id names a dependent type, --a cv-qualified type where the cv-unqualified type is dependent, --a compound type constructed from any dependent type, --an array type constructed from any dependent type or whose size is specified by a constant expression that is value-dependent, --a template-id in which either the template name is a template param- eter or any of the template arguments is a dependent type or an expression that is type-dependent or value-dependent. 14.6.2.2 Type-dependent expressions [temp.dep.expr] 1 Except as described below, an expression is type-dependent if any subexpression is type-dependent. 2 this is type-dependent if the class type of the enclosing member func- tion is dependent (_temp.dep.type_). 3 An id-expression is type-dependent if it contains: --an identifier that was declared with a dependent type, --a template-id that is dependent, --a conversion-function-id that specifies a dependent type, --a nested-name-specifier that contains a class-name that names a dependent type. Expressions of the following forms are type-dependent only if the type specified by the type-id, simple-type-specifier or new-type-id is dependent, even if any subexpression is type-dependent: simple-type-specifier ( expression-listopt ) ::opt new new-placementopt new-type-id new-initializeropt ::opt new new-placementopt ( type-id ) new-initializeropt dynamic_cast < type-id > ( expression ) static_cast < type-id > ( expression ) const_cast < type-id > ( expression ) reinterpret_cast < type-id > ( expression ) ( type-id ) cast-expression 4 Expressions of the following forms are never type-dependent (because the type of the expression cannot be dependent): literal postfix-expression . pseudo-destructor-name postfix-expression -> pseudo-destructor-name sizeof unary-expression sizeof ( type-id ) typeid ( expression ) typeid ( type-id ) ::opt delete cast-expression ::opt delete [ ] cast-expression throw assignment-expressionopt 14.6.2.3 Value-dependent expressions [temp.dep.constexpr] 1 Except as described below, a constant expression is value-dependent if any subexpression is value-dependent. 2 An identifier is value-dependent if it is: --a name declared with a dependent type, --the name of a non-type template parameter, --a constant with integral or enumeration type and is initialized with an expression that is value-dependent. Expressions of the following form are value-dependent if the unary- expression is type-dependent or the type-id is dependent (even if sizeof unary-expression and sizeof ( type-id ) are not type-depen- dent): sizeof unary-expression sizeof ( type-id ) 3 Expressions of the following form are value-dependent if either the type-id or simple-type-specifier is dependent or the expression or cast-expression is value-dependent: simple-type-specifier ( expression-listopt ) static_cast < type-id > ( expression ) const_cast < type-id > ( expression ) reinterpret_cast < type-id > ( expression ) ( type-id ) cast-expression 14.6.2.4 Dependent template arguments [temp.dep.temp] 1 A type template-argument is dependent if the type it specifies is dependent. 2 An integral non-type template-argument is dependent if the constant expression it specifies is value-dependent. 3 +------- BEGIN BOX 11 -------+ The "if its type is dependent" below was added editorially. The other part now seems redundant since if that part (the class-name names a dependent type) is true, then the entire type of the template-argument is dependent. So the second part should probably be removed. (bg) +------- END BOX 11 -------+ 4 A non-integral non-type template-argument is dependent if its type is dependent or it has either of the following forms qualified-id & qualified-id and contains a nested-name-specifier which specifies a class-name that names a dependent type. 5 A template template-argument is dependent if it names a template- parameter or is a qualified-id with a nested-name-specifier which con- tains a class-name that names a dependent type. 14.6.3 Non-dependent names [temp.nondep] 1 Non-dependent names used in a template definition are found using the usual name lookup and bound at the point they are used. [Example: void g(double); void h(); template<class T> class Z { public: void f() { g(1); // calls g(double) h++; // ill-formed: cannot increment function; // this could be diagnosed either here or // at the point of instantiation } }; void g(int); // not in scope at the point of the template // definition, not considered for the call g(1) --end example] 14.6.4 Dependent name resolution [temp.dep.res] 1 In resolving dependent names, names from the following sources are considered: --Declarations that are visible at the point of definition of the tem- plate. --Declarations from namespaces associated with the types of the func- tion arguments both from the instantiation context (_temp.point_) and from the definition context. 14.6.4.1 Point of instantiation [temp.point] 1 For a function template specialization, a member function template specialization, or a specialization for a member function or static data member of a class template, if the specialization is implicitly instantiated because it is referenced from within another template specialization and the context from which it is referenced depends on a template parameter, the point of instantiation of the specialization is the point of instantiation of the enclosing specialization. Other- wise, the point of instantiation for such a specialization immediately follows the namespace scope declaration or definition that refers to the specialization. 2 If a function template or member function of a class template is called in a way which uses the definition of a default argument of that function template or member function, the point of instantiation of the default argument is the point of instantiation of the function template or member function specialization. 3 For a class template specialization, a class member template special- ization, or a specialization for a class member of a class template, if the specialization is implicitly instantiated because it is refer- enced from within another template specialization, if the context from which the specialization is referenced depends on a template parame- ter, and if the specialization is not instantiated previous to the instantiation of the enclosing template, the point of instantiation is immediately before the point of instantiation of the enclosing tem- plate. Otherwise, the point of instantiation for such a specializa- tion immediately precedes the namespace scope declaration or defini- tion that refers to the specialization. 4 If a virtual function is implicitly instantiated, its point of instan- tiation is immediately following the point of instantiation of its enclosing class template specialization. 5 An explicit instantiation directive is an instantiation point for the specialization or specializations specified by the explicit instantia- tion directive. 6 The instantiation context of an expression that depends on the tem- plate arguments is the set of declarations with external linkage declared prior to the point of instantiation of the template special- ization in the same translation unit. 7 A specialization for a function template, a member function template, or of a member function or static data member of a class template may have multiple points of instantiations within a translation unit. A specialization for a class template has at most one point of instanti- ation within a translation unit. A specialization for any template may have points of instantiation in multiple translation units. If two different points of instantiation give a template specialization different meanings according to the one definition rule (_basic.def.odr_), the program is ill-formed, no diagnostic required. 14.6.4.2 Candidate functions [temp.dep.candidate] 1 For a function call that depends on a template parameter, if the func- tion name is an unqualified-id but not a template-id, the candidate functions are found using the usual lookup rules (_basic.lookup.unqual_, _basic.lookup.koenig_) except that: --For the part of the lookup using unqualified name lookup (_basic.lookup.unqual_), only function declarations with external linkage from the template definition context are found. --For the part of the lookup using associated namespaces (_basic.lookup.koenig_), only function declarations with external linkage found in either the template definition context or the tem- plate instantiation context are found. If the call would be ill-formed or would find a better match had the lookup within the associated namespaces considered all the function declarations with external linkage introduced in those namespaces in all translation units, not just considering those declarations found in the template definition and template instantiation contexts, then the program has undefined behavior. 14.6.5 Friend names declared within a class [temp.inject] template 1 Friend classes or functions can be declared within a class template. When a template is instantiated, the names of its friends are treated as if the specialization had been explicitly declared at its point of instantiation. 2 As with non-template classes, the names of namespace-scope friend functions of a class template specialization are not visible during an ordinary lookup unless explicitly declared at namespace scope (_class.friend_). Such names may be found under the rules for associ- ated classes (_basic.lookup.koenig_).6) [Example: template<typename T> class number { number(int); //... friend number gcd(number& x, number& y) { /* ... */ } //... }; void g() { number<double> a(3), b(4); //... a = gcd(a,b); // finds gcd because number<double> is an // associated class, making gcd visible // in its namespace (global scope) b = gcd(3,4); // ill-formed; gcd is not visible } --end example] 14.7 Template instantiation and specialization [temp.spec] 1 The act of instantiating a function, a class, a member of a class tem- plate or a member template is referred to as template instantiation. 2 A function instantiated from a function template is called an instan- tiated function. A class instantiated from a class template is called an instantiated class. A member function, a member class, or a static data member of a class template instantiated from the member defini- tion of the class template is called, respectively, an instantiated member function, member class or static data member. A member func- tion instantiated from a member function template is called an instan- tiated member function. A member class instantiated from a member class template is called an instantiated member class. 3 An explicit specialization may be declared for a function template, a class template, a member of a class template or a member template. An explicit specialization declaration is introduced by template<>. In an explicit specialization declaration for a class template, a member of a class template or a class member template, the name of the class _________________________ 6) Friend declarations do not introduce new names into any scope, ei- ther when the template is declared or when it is instantiated. that is explicitly specialized shall be a template-id. In the explicit specialization declaration for a function template or a mem- ber function template, the name of the function or member function explicitly specialized may be a template-id. [Example: template<class T = int> struct A { static int x; }; template<class U> void g(U) { } template<> struct A<double> { }; // specialize for T == double template<> struct A<> { }; // specialize for T == int template<> void g(char) { } // specialize for U == char // U is deduced from the parameter type template<> void g<int>(int) { } // specialize for U == int template<> int A<char>::x = 0; // specialize for T == char template<class T = int> struct B { static int x; }; template<> int B<>::x = 1; // specialize for T == int --end example] 4 An instantiated template specialization can be either implicitly instantiated (_temp.inst_) for a given argument list or be explicitly instantiated (_temp.explicit_). A specialization is a class, func- tion, or class member that is either instantiated or explicitly spe- cialized (_temp.expl.spec_). 5 No program shall explicitly instantiate any template more than once, both explicitly instantiate and explicitly specialize a template, or specialize a template more than once for a given set of template-argu- ments. An implementation is not required to diagnose a violation of this rule. 6 Each class template specialization instantiated from a template has its own copy of any static members. [Example: template<class T> class X { static T s; // ... }; template<class T> T X<T>::s = 0; X<int> aa; X<char*> bb; X<int> has a static member s of type int and X<char*> has a static member s of type char*. ] 14.7.1 Implicit instantiation [temp.inst] 1 Unless a class template specialization has been explicitly instanti- ated (_temp.explicit_) or explicitly specialized (_temp.expl.spec_), the class template specialization is implicitly instantiated when the specialization is referenced in a context that requires a completely- defined object type or when the completeness of the class type affects the semantics of the program. The implicit instantiation of a class template specialization does not cause the implicit instantiation of the definitions of the class member functions, member classes, static data members or member templates. Unless a member of a class template or a member template has been explicitly instantiated or explicitly specialized, the specialization of the member is implicitly instanti- ated when the specialization is referenced in a context that requires the member definition to exist; in particular, the initialization (and any associated side-effects) of a static data member does not occur unless the static data member is itself used in a way that requires the definition of the static data member to exist. 2 Unless a function template specialization has been explicitly instan- tiated or explicitly specialized, the function template specialization is implicitly instantiated when the specialization is referenced in a context that requires a function definition to exist. Unless a call is to a function template explicit specialization or to a member func- tion of an explicitly specialized class template, a default argument for a function template or a member function of a class template is implicitly instantiated when the function is called in a context that requires the value of the default argument. 3 [Example: template<class T> class Z { public: void f(); void g(); }; void h() { Z<int> a; // instantiation of class Z<int> required Z<char>* p; // instantiation of class Z<char> not // required Z<double>* q; // instantiation of class Z<double> // not required a.f(); // instantiation of Z<int>::f() required p->g(); // instantiation of class Z<char> required, and // instantiation of Z<char>::g() required } Nothing in this example requires class Z<double>, Z<int>::g(), or Z<char>::f() to be implicitly instantiated. ] 4 A class template specialization is implicitly instantiated if the class type is used in a context that requires a completely-defined object type or if the completeness of the class type affects the semantics of the program; in particular, if an expression whose type is a class template specialization is involved in overload resolution, pointer conversion, pointer to member conversion, the class template specialization is implicitly instantiated (_basic.def.odr_); in addi- tion, a class template specialization is implicitly instantiated if the operand of a delete expression is of class type or is of pointer to class type and the class type is a template specialization. [Exam- ple: template<class T> class B { /* ... */ }; template<class T> class D : public B<T> { /* ... */ }; void f(void*); void f(B<int>*); void g(D<int>* p, D<char>* pp, D<double> ppp) { f(p); // instantiation of D<int> required: call f(B<int>*) B<char>* q = pp; // instantiation of D<char> required: // convert D<char>* to B<char>* delete ppp; // instantiation of D<double> required } --end example] 5 If the overload resolution process can determine the correct function to call without instantiating a class template definition, it is unspecified whether that instantiation actually takes place. [Exam- ple: template <class T> struct S { operator int(); }; void f(int); void f(S<int>&); void f(S<float>); void g(S<int>& sr) { f(sr); // instantiation of S<int> allowed but not required // instantiation of S<float> allowed but not required }; --end example] 6 If an implicit instantiation of a class template specialization is required and the template is declared but not defined, the program is ill-formed. [Example: template<class T> class X; X<char> ch; // error: definition of X required --end example] 7 The implicit instantiation of a class template does not cause any static data members of that class to be implicitly instantiated. 8 If a function template or a member function template specialization is used in a way that involves overload resolution, a declaration of the specialization is implicitly instantiated (_temp.over_). 9 An implementation shall not implicitly instantiate a function tem- plate, a member template, a non-virtual member function, a member class or a static data member of a class template that does not require instantiation. It is unspecified whether or not an implementation implicitly instantiates a virtual member function of a class template if the virtual member function would not otherwise be instantiated. The use of a template specialization in a default argu- ment shall not cause the template to be implicitly instantiated except that a class template may be instantiated where its complete type is needed to determine the correctness of the default argument. The use of a default argument in a function call causes specializations in the default argument to be implicitly instantiated. 10Implicitly instantiated class and function template specializations are placed in the namespace where the template is defined. Implicitly instantiated specializations for members of a class template are placed in the namespace where the enclosing class template is defined. Implicitly instantiated member templates are placed in the namespace where the enclosing class or class template is defined. [Example: namespace N { template<class T> class List { public: T* get(); // ... }; } template<class K, class V> class Map { N::List<V> lt; V get(K); // ... }; void g(Map<char*,int>& m) { int i = m.get("Nicholas"); // ... } a call of lt.get() from Map<char*,int>::get() would place List<int>::get() in the namespace N rather than in the global names- pace. ] 11If a function template f is called in a way that requires a default argument expression to be used, the dependent names are looked up, the semantics constraints are checked, and the instantiation of any tem- plate used in the default argument expression is done as if the default argument expression had been an expression used in a function template with the same scope and the same template parameters as that of the function template f used at that point. This analysis is called default argument instantiation. The instantiated default argu- ment is then used as the argument of f. 12Each default argument is instantiated independently. [Example: template<class T> void f(T x, T y = ydef(T()), T z = zdef(T())); class A { }; A zdef(A); void g(A a, A b, A c) { f(a, b, c); // no default argument instantiation f(a, b); // default argument z = zdef(T()) instantiated f(a); // ill-formed; ydef is not declared } --end example] 13[Note: _temp.point_ defines the point of instantiation of a template specialization. ] 14There is an implementation-defined quantity that specifies the limit on the total depth of recursive instantiations, which could involve more than one template. The result of an infinite recursion in instantiation is undefined. [Example: template<class T> class X { X<T>* p; // OK X<T*> a; // implicit generation of X<T> requires // the implicit instantiation of X<T*> which requires // the implicit instantiation of X<T**> which ... }; --end example] 14.7.2 Explicit instantiation [temp.explicit] 1 A class, a function or member template specialization can be explic- itly instantiated from its template. A member function, member class or static data member of a class template can be explicitly instanti- ated from the member definition associated with its class template. 2 The syntax for explicit instantiation is: explicit-instantiation: template declaration If the explicit instantiation is for a class, a function or a member template specialization, the unqualified-id in the declaration shall be either a template-id or, where all template arguments can be deduced, a template-name. [Note: the declaration may declare a quali- fied-id, in which case the unqualified-id of the qualified-id must be a template-id. ] If the explicit instantiation is for a member func- tion, a member class or a static data member of a class template spe- cialization, the name of the class template specialization in the qualified-id for the member declarator shall be a template-id. [Exam- ple: template<class T> class Array { void mf(); }; template class Array<char>; template void Array<int>::mf(); template<class T> void sort(Array<T>& v) { /* ... */ } template void sort(Array<char>&); // argument is deduced here namespace N { template<class T> void f(T&) { } } template void N::f<int>(int&); --end example] 3 A declaration of a function template shall be in scope at the point of the explicit instantiation of the function template. A definition of the class or class template containing a member function template shall be in scope at the point of the explicit instantiation of the member function template. A definition of a class template or class member template shall be in scope at the point of the explicit instan- tiation of the class template or class member template. A definition of a class template shall be in scope at the point of an explicit instantiation of a member function or a static data member of the class template. A definition of a member class of a class template shall be in scope at the point of an explicit instantiation of the member class. If the declaration of the explicit instantiation names an implicitly-declared special member function (clause _special_), the program is ill-formed. 4 The definition of a non-exported function template, a non-exported member function template, or a non-exported member function or static data member of a class template shall be present in every translation unit in which it is explicitly instantiated. 5 An explicit instantiation of a class or function template specializa- tion is placed in the namespace in which the template is defined. An explicit instantiation for a member of a class template is placed in the namespace where the enclosing class template is defined. An explicit instantiation for a member template is placed in the names- pace where the enclosing class or class template is defined. [Exam- ple: namespace N { template<class T> class Y { void mf() { } }; } template class Y<int>; // error: class template Y not visible // in the global namespace using N::Y; template class Y<int>; // OK: explicit instantiation in namespace N template class N::Y<char*>; // OK: explicit instantiation in namespace N template void N::Y<double>::mf(); // OK: explicit instantiation // in namespace N --end example] 6 A trailing template-argument can be left unspecified in an explicit instantiation of a function template specialization or of a member function template specialization provided it can be deduced from the type of a function parameter (_temp.deduct_). [Example: template<class T> class Array { /* ... */ }; template<class T> void sort(Array<T>& v); // instantiate sort(Array<int>&) - template-argument deduced template void sort<>(Array<int>&); --end example] 7 The explicit instantiation of a class template specialization implies the instantiation of all of its members not previously explicitly spe- cialized in the translation unit containing the explicit instantia- tion. 8 The usual access checking rules do not apply to names used to specify explicit instantiations. [Note: In particular, the template arguments and names used in the function declarator (including parameter types, return types and exception specifications) may be private types or objects which would normally not be accessible and the template may be a member template or member function which would not normally be accessible. ] 9 An explicit instantiation does not constitute a use of a default argu- ment, so default argument instantiation is not done. [Example: char* p = 0; template<class T> T g(T = &p); template int g<int>(int); // OK even though &p isn't an int. --end example] 14.7.3 Explicit specialization [temp.expl.spec] 1 An explicit specialization of any of the following: --function template --class template --member function of a class template --static data member of a class template --member class of a class template --member class template of a class template --member function template of a class template can be declared by a declaration introduced by template<>; that is: explicit-specialization: template < > declaration [Example: template<class T> class stream; template<> class stream<char> { /* ... */ }; template<class T> class Array { /* ... */ }; template<class T> void sort(Array<T>& v) { /* ... */ } template<> void sort<char*>(Array<char*>&) ; Given these declarations, stream<char> will be used as the definition of streams of chars; other streams will be handled by class template specializations instantiated from the class template. Similarly, sort<char*> will be used as the sort function for arguments of type Array<char*>; other Array types will be sorted by functions generated from the template. ] 2 An explicit specialization shall be declared in the namespace of which the template is a member, or, for member templates, in the namespace of which the enclosing class or enclosing class template is a member. An explicit specialization of a member function, member class or static data member of a class template shall be declared in the names- pace of which the class template is a member. Such a declaration may also be a definition. If the declaration is not a definition, the specialization may be defined later in the namespace in which the explicit specialization was declared, or in a namespace that encloses the one in which the explicit specialization was declared. 3 A declaration of a function template or class template being explic- itly specialized shall be in scope at the point of declaration of an explicit specialization. [Note: a declaration, but not a definition of the template is required. ] The definition of a class or class template shall be in scope at the point of declaration of an explicit specialization for a member template of the class or class template. [Example: template<> class X<int> { /* ... */ }; // error: X not a template template<class T> class X; template<> class X<char*> { /* ... */ }; // OK: X is a template --end example] 4 A member function, a member class or a static data member of a class template may be explicitly specialized for a class specialization that is implicitly instantiated; in this case, the definition of the class template shall be in scope at the point of declaration of the explicit specialization for the member of the class template. If such an explicit specialization for the member of a class template names an implicitly-declared special member function (clause _special_), the program is ill-formed. 5 A member of an explicitly specialized class is not implicitly instan- tiated from the member declaration of the class template; instead, the member of the class template specialization shall itself be explicitly defined. In this case, the definition of the class template explicit specialization shall be in scope at the point of declaration of the explicit specialization of the member. The definition of an explicitly specialized class is unrelated to the definition of a gen- erated specialization. That is, its members need not have the same names, types, etc. as the members of the a generated specialization. Definitions of members of an explicitly specialized class are defined in the same manner as members of normal classes, and not using the explicit specialization syntax. [Example: template<class T> struct A { void f(T) { /* ... */ } }; template<> struct A<int> { void f(int); }; void h() { A<int> a; a.f(16); // A<int>::f must be defined somewhere } // explicit specialization syntax not used for a member of // explicitly specialized class template specialization void A<int>::f() { /* ... */ } --end example] 6 If a template, a member template or the member of a class template is explicitly specialized then that specialization shall be declared before the first use of that specialization that would cause an implicit instantiation to take place, in every translation unit in which such a use occurs. If the program does not provide a definition for an explicit specialization and either the specialization is used in a way that would cause an implicit instantiation to take place or the member is a virtual member function, the program is ill-formed, no diagnostic required. An implicit instantiation is never generated for an explicit specialization that is declared but not defined. [Exam- ple: template<class T> class Array { /* ... */ }; template<class T> void sort(Array<T>& v) { /* ... */ } void f(Array<String>& v) { sort(v); // use primary template // sort(Array<T>&), T is String } template<> void sort<String>(Array<String>& v); // error: specialization // after use of primary template template<> void sort<>(Array<char*>& v); // OK: sort<char*> not yet used --end example] +------- BEGIN BOX 12 -------+ The following change was voted in at the July 1997 meeting, but there may still be some controversy. The problem is that it is not gener- ally possible to provide a specialization of a template in the context of the definition, as shown in the example. One alternative discussed in the post-meeting editorial session was to treat the use of class template names with dependent template argu- ments in a way similar to how function names with dependent arguments are treated; that is, allow the names to be found in the translation unit containing the point of instantiation. Note that this may break the SGI link-time sourceless instantiation concept. The change in question is between this and the next editorial box. +------- END BOX 12 -------+ 7 When a specialization for which an explicit specialization exists is used within the instantiation of an exported template, and the unspe- cialized template name is non-dependent in the exported template, a declaration of the explicit specialization shall be declared before the definition of the exported template, in the translation unit con- taining that definition. [Example: // file #1 #include <vector> // Primary class template vector export template<class T> void f(t) { vector<T> vec; // should match the specialization /* ... */ } // file #2 #include <vector> class B { }; // Explicit specialization of vector for vector<B> template<class T> class vector<B> { /* ... */ } template<class T> void f(T); void g(B b) { f(b); // ill-formed: // f<B> should refer to vector<B>, but the // specialization was not declared with the // definition of f in file #1 } --end example] +------- BEGIN BOX 13 -------+ End of questionable change based on L7052. +------- END BOX 13 -------+ 8 A template explicit specialization is in the scope of the namespace in which the template was defined. [Example: namespace N { template<class T> class X { /* ... */ }; template<class T> class Y { /* ... */ }; template<> class X<int> { /* ... */ }; // OK: specialization // in same namespace template<> class Y<double>; // forward declare intent to // specialize for double } template<> class N::Y<double> { /* ... */ }; // OK: specialization // in same namespace --end example] 9 A template-id that names a class template explicit specialization that has been declared but not defined can be used exactly like the names of other incompletely-defined classes (_basic.types_). [Example: template<class T> class X; // X is a class template template<> class X<int>; X<int>* p; // OK: pointer to declared class X<int> X<int> x; // error: object of incomplete class X<int> --end example] 10A trailing template-argument can be left unspecified in the template- id naming an explicit function template specialization provided it can be deduced from the function argument type. [Example: template<class T> class Array { /* ... */ }; template<class T> void sort(Array<T>& v); // explicit specialization for sort(Array<int>&) // with deduces template-argument of type int template<> void sort(Array<int>&); --end example] 11It is possible for a specialization with a given function signature to be instantiated from more than one function template. In such cases, explicit specification of the template arguments must be used to uniquely identify the function template specialization being special- ized. [Example: template <class T> void f(T); template <class T> void f(T*); template <> void f(int*); // Ambiguous template <> void f<int>(int*); // OK template <> void f(int); // OK --end example] 12A function with the same name as a template and a type that exactly matches that of a template specialization is not an explicit special- ization (_temp.fct_). 13An explicit specialization of a function template is inline only if it is explicitly declared to be, and independently of whether its func- tion template is. [Example: template<class T> void f(T) { /* ... */ } template<class T> inline T g(T) { /* ... */ } template<> inline void f<>(int) { /* ... */ } // OK: inline template<> int g<>(int) { /* ... */ } // OK: not inline --end example] 14An explicit specialization of a static data member of a template is a definition if the declaration includes an initializer; otherwise, it is a declaration. [Note: there is no syntax for the definition of a static data member of a template that requires default initialization. template<> X Q<int>::x; This is a declaration regardless of whether X can be default initial- ized (_dcl.init_). ] 15A member or a member template of a class template may be explicitly specialized for a given implicit instantiation of the class template, even if the member or member template is defined in the class template definition. An explicit specialization of a member or member template is specified using the template specialization syntax. [Example: template<class T> struct A { void f(T); template<class X> void g(T,X); void h(T) { } }; // specialization template<> void A<int>::f(int); // out of class member template definition template<class T> template<class X> void A<T>::g(T,X) { } // member template partial specialization template<> template<class X> void A<int>::g(int,X); // member template specialization template<> template<> void A<int>::g(int,char); // X deduced as char template<> template<> void A<int>::g<char>(int,char); // X specified as char // member specialization even if defined in class definition template<> void A<int>::h(int) { } --end example] 16A member or a member template may be nested within many enclosing class templates. If the declaration of an explicit specialization for such a member appears in namespace scope, the member declaration shall be preceded by a template<> for each enclosing class template that is explicitly specialized. [Example: template<class T1> class A { template<class T2> class B { void mf(); }; }; template<> template<> A<int>::B<double> { }; template<> template<> void A<char>::B<char>::mf() { }; --end example] 17In an explicit specialization declaration for a member of a class tem- plate or a member template that appears in namespace scope, the member template and some of its enclosing class templates may remain unspe- cialized, except that the declaration shall not explicitly specialize a class member template if its enclosing class templates are not explicitly specialized as well. In such explicit specialization dec- laration, the keyword template followed by a template-parameter-list shall be provided instead of the template<> preceding the explicit specialization declaration of the member. The types of the template- parameters in the template-parameter-list shall be the same as those specified in the primary template definition. [Example: template<class T1> class A { template<class T2> class B { template<class T3> void mf1(T3); void mf2(); }; }; template<> template<class X> class A<int>::B { }; template<> template<> template<class T> void A<int>::B<double>::mf1(T t) { }; template<class Y> template<> void A<Y>::B<double>::mf2() { }; // ill-formed // B<double> specialized but its enclosing class template A is not --end example] 18A specialization of a member function template or member class tem- plate of a non-specialized class template is itself a template. 19An explicit specialization declaration shall not be a friend declara- tion. 20Default function arguments shall not be specified in a declaration or a definition for one of the following explicit specializations: --the explicit specialization of a function template; --the explicit specialization of a member function template; --the explicit specialization of a member function of a class template where the class template specialization to which the member function specialization belongs is implicitly instantiated. [Note: default function arguments may be specified in the declaration or definition of a member function of a class template specialization that is explicitly specialized. ] 14.8 Function template specializations [temp.fct.spec] 1 A function instantiated from a function template is called a function template specialization; so is an explicit specialization of a func- tion template. Template arguments can either be explicitly specified when naming the function template specialization or be deduced (_temp.deduct_) from the context, e.g. from the function arguments in a call to the function template specialization. 2 Each function template specialization instantiated from a template has its own copy of any static variable. [Example: template<class T> void f(T* p) { static T s; // ... }; void g(int a, char* b) { f(&a); // call f<int>(int*) f(&b); // call f<char*>(char**) } Here f<int>(int*) has a static variable s of type int and f<char*>(char**) has a static variable s of type char*. ] 14.8.1 Explicit template argument [temp.arg.explicit] specification 1 Template arguments can be specified when referring to a function tem- plate specialization by qualifying the function template name with the list of template-arguments in the same way as template-arguments are specified in uses of a class template specialization. [Example: template<class T> void sort(Array<T>& v); void f(Array<dcomplex>& cv, Array<int>& ci) { sort<dcomplex>(cv); // sort(Array<dcomplex>&) sort<int>(ci); // sort(Array<int>&) } and template<class U, class V> U convert(V v); void g(double d) { int i = convert<int,double>(d); // int convert(double) char c = convert<char,double>(d); // char convert(double) } --end example] 2 A template argument list may be specified when referring to a special- ization of a function template --when a function is called, --when the address of a function is taken, when a function initializes a reference to function, or when a pointer to member function is formed, --in an explicit specialization, --in an explicit instantiation, or --in a friend declaration. Trailing template arguments that can be deduced (_temp.deduct_) may be omitted from the list of explicit template-arguments. If all of the template arguments can be deduced, they may all be omitted; in this case, the empty template argument list <> itself may also be omitted. [Example: template<class X, class Y> X f(Y); void g() { int i = f<int>(5.6); // Y is deduced to be double int j = f(5.6); // ill-formed: X cannot be deduced } --end example] [Note: An empty template argument list can be used to indicate that a given use refers to a specialization of a function template even when a normal (i.e., nontemplate) function is visible that would otherwise be used. For example: template <class T> int f(T); // #1 int f(int); // #2 int k = f(1); // uses #2 int l = f<>(1); // uses #1 --end note] 3 Template arguments that are present shall be specified in the declara- tion order of their corresponding template-parameters. The template argument list shall not specify more template-arguments than there are corresponding template-parameters. [Example: template<class X, class Y, class Z> X f(Y,Z); void g() { f<int,char*,double>("aa",3.0); f<int,char*>("aa",3.0); // Z is deduced to be double f<int>("aa",3.0); // Y is deduced to be char*, and // Z is deduced to be double f("aa",3.0); // error: X cannot be deduced } --end example] 4 Implicit conversions (clause _conv_) will be performed on a function argument to convert it to the type of the corresponding function parameter if the parameter type contains no template-parameters that participate in template argument deduction. [Note: template parame- ters do not participate in template argument deduction if they are explicitly specified. For example, template<class T> void f(T); class Complex { // ... Complex(double); }; void g() { f<Complex>(1); // OK, means f<Complex>(Complex(1)) } --end note] 5 [Note: because the explicit template argument list follows the func- tion template name, and because conversion member function templates and constructor member function templates are called without using a function name, there is no way to provide an explicit template argu- ment list for these function templates. ] 6 [Note: For simple function names, argument dependent lookup (_basic.lookup.koenig_) applies even when the function name is not visible within the scope of the call. This is because the call still has the syntactic form of a function call (_basic.lookup.unqual_). But when a function template with explicit template arguments is used, the call does not have the correct syntactic form unless there is a function template with that name visible at the point of the call. If no such name is visible, the call is not syntactically well-formed and argument-dependent lookup does not apply. If some such name is visi- ble, argument dependent lookup applies and additional function tem- plates may be found in other namespaces. [Example: namespace A { struct B { }; template<int X> void f(); } namespace C { template<class T> void f(T t); } void g(A::B b) { f<3>(b); // ill-formed: not a function call A::f<3>(b); // well-formed C::f<3>(b); // ill-formed; argument dependent lookup // only applies to unqualified names using C::f; f<3>(b); // well-formed because C::f is visible; then // A::f is found by argument dependent lookup } --end example] --end note] 14.8.2 Template argument deduction [temp.deduct] 1 When a template function specialization is referenced, all of the tem- plate arguments must have values. The values can be either explicitly specified or, in some cases, deduced from the use. [Example: void f(Array<dcomplex>& cv, Array<int>& ci) { sort(cv); // call sort(Array<dcomplex>&) sort(ci); // call sort(Array<int>&) } and void g(double d) { int i = convert<int>(d); // call convert<int,double>(double) int c = convert<char>(d); // call convert<char,double>(double) } --end example] 14.8.2.1 Deducing template arguments from a [temp.deduct.call] function call 1 Template argument deduction is done by comparing each function tem- plate parameter type (call it P) with the type of the corresponding argument of the call (call it A) as described below. 2 If P is not a reference type: --If A is an array type, the pointer type produced by the array-to- pointer standard conversion (_conv.array_) is used in place of A for type deduction; otherwise, --If A is a function type, the pointer type produced by the function- to-pointer standard conversion (_conv.func_) is used in place of A for type deduction; otherwise, --If A is a cv-qualified type, the top level cv-qualifiers of A's type are ignored for type deduction. If P is a cv-qualified type, the top level cv-qualifiers of P's type are ignored for type deduction. If P is a reference type, the type referred to by P is used for type deduction. 3 In general, the deduction process attempts to find template argument values that will make the deduced A identical to A (after the type A is transformed as described above). However, there are three cases that allow a difference: --If the original P is a reference type, the deduced A (i.e., the type referred to by the reference) can be more cv-qualified than A. --A can be another pointer or pointer to member type that can be con- verted to the deduced A via a qualification conversion (_conv.qual_). --If P is a class, and P has the form template-id, then A can be a derived class of the deduced A. Likewise, if P is a pointer to a class of the form template-id, A can be a pointer to a derived class pointed to by the deduced A. These alternatives are considered only if type deduction would other- wise fail. If they yield more than one possible deduced A, the type deduction fails. [Note: if a template-parameter is not used in any of the function parameters of a function template, or is used only in a non-deduced context, its corresponding template-argument cannot be deduced from a function call and the template-argument must be explic- itly specified. ] 14.8.2.2 Deducing template arguments [temp.deduct.funcaddr] taking the address of a function template 1 Template arguments can be deduced from the type specified when taking the address of an overloaded function (_over.over_). The function template's function type and the specified type are used as the types of P and A, and the deduction is done as described in _temp.deduct.type_. 14.8.2.3 Deducing conversion function [temp.deduct.conv] template arguments 1 Template argument deduction is done by comparing the return type of the template conversion function (call it P) with the type that is required as the result of the conversion (call it A) as described in _temp.deduct.type_. 2 If A is not a reference type: --If P is an array type, the pointer type produced by the array-to- pointer standard conversion (_conv.array_) is used in place of P for type deduction; otherwise, --If P is a function type, the pointer type produced by the function- to-pointer standard conversion (_conv.func_) is used in place of P for type deduction; otherwise, --If P is a cv-qualified type, the top level cv-qualifiers of P's type are ignored for type deduction. If A is a cv-qualified type, the top level cv-qualifiers of A's type are ignored for type deduction. If A is a reference type, the type referred to by A is used for type deduction. 3 In general, the deduction process attempts to find template argument values that will make the deduced A identical to A. However, there are two cases that allow a difference: --If the original A is a reference type, A can be more cv-qualified than the deduced A (i.e., the type referred to by the reference) --The deduced A can be another pointer or pointer to member type that can be converted to A via a qualification conversion. These alternatives are considered only if type deduction would otherwise fail. If they yield more than one possible deduced A, the type deduction fails. 14.8.2.4 Deducing template arguments from a [temp.deduct.type] type 1 Template arguments can be deduced in several different contexts, but in each case a type that is specified in terms of template parameters (call it P) is compared with an actual type (call it A), and an attempt is made to find template argument values (a type for a type parameter, a value for a non-type parameter, or a template for a tem- plate parameter) that will make P, after substitution of the deduced values (call it the deduced A), compatible with A. 2 In some cases, the deduction is done using a single set of types P and A, in other cases, there will be a set of corresponding types P and A. Type deduction is done independently for each P/A pair, and the deduced template argument values are then combined. If type deduction cannot be done for any P/A pair, or if for any pair the deduction leads to more than one possible set of deduced values, or if different pairs yield different deduced values, or if any template argument remains neither deduced nor explicitly specified, template argument deduction fails. 3 A given type P can be composed from a number of other types, tem- plates, and non-type values: --A function type includes the types of each of the function parame- ters and the return type. --A pointer to member type includes the type of the class object pointed to and the type of the member pointed to. --A type that is a specialization of a class template (e.g., A<int>) includes the types, templates, and non-type values referenced by the template argument list of the specialization. --An array type includes the array element type and the value of the array bound. In most cases, the types, templates, and non-type values that are used to compose P participate in template argument deduction. That is, they may be used to determine the value of a template argument, and the value so determined must be consistent with the values determined elsewhere. In certain contexts, however, the value does not partici- pate in type deduction, but instead uses the values of template argu- ments that were either deduced elsewhere or explicitly specified. If a template parameter is used only in nondeduced contexts and is not explicitly specified, template argument deduction fails. 4 The nondeduced contexts are: --The nested-name-specifier of a type that was specified using a qual- ified-id. --A type that is a template-id in which one or more of the template- arguments is an expression that references a template-parameter. When a type name is specified in a way that includes a nondeduced con- text, all of the types that comprise that type name are also nonde- duced. However, a compound type can include both deduced and nonde- duced types. [Example: If a type is specified as A<T>::B<T2>, both T and T2 are nondeduced. Likewise, if a type is specified as A<I+J>::X<T>, I, J, and T are nondeduced. If a type is specified as void f(A<T>::B, A<T>), the T in A<T>::B is nondeduced but the T in A<T> is deduced. ] 5 [Example: Here is an example in which different parameter/argument pairs produce inconsistent template argument deductions: template<class T> void f(T x, T y) { /* ... */ } struct A { /* ... */ }; struct B : A { /* ... */ }; int g(A a, B b) { f(a,b); // error: T could be A or B f(b,a); // error: T could be A or B f(a,a); // OK: T is A f(b,b); // OK: T is B } 6 Here is an example where two template arguments are deduced from a single function parameter/argument pair. This can lead to conflicts that cause type deduction to fail: template <class T, class U> void f( T (*)( T, U, U ) ); int g1( int, float, float); char g2( int, float, float); int g3( int, char, float); void r() { f(g1); // OK: T is int and U is float f(g2); // error: T could be char or int f(g3); // error: U could be char or float } 7 Here is an example where a qualification conversion applies between the argument type on the function call and the deduced template argu- ment type: template<class T> void f(const T*) {} int *p; void s() { f(p); // f(const int *) } 8 Here is an example where the template argument is used to instantiate a derived class type of the corresponding function parameter type: template <class T> struct B { }; template <class T> struct D : public B<T> {}; struct D2 : public B<int> {}; template <class T> void f(B<T>&){} void t() { D<int> d; D2 d2; f(d); // calls f(B<int>&) f(d2); // calls f(B<int>&) } --end example] 9 A template type argument T, a template template argument TT or a tem- plate non-type argument i can be deduced if P and A have one of the following forms: T cv-list T T* T& T[integer-constant] template-name<T> (where template-name refers to a class template) type(*)(T) T(*)() T(*)(T) type T::* T type::* T (type::*)() type (T::*)() type (type::*)(T) type[i] template-name<i> (where template-name refers to a class template) TT<T> TT<i> TT<> where (T) represents argument lists where at least one argument type contains a T, and () represents argument lists where no parameter con- tains a T. Similarly, <T> represents template argument lists where at least one argument contains a T, <i> represents template argument lists where at least one argument contains an i and <> represents tem- plate argument lists where no argument contains a T or an i. 10These forms can be used in the same way as T is for further composi- tion of types. [Example: X<int> (*)(char[6]) is of the form template-name<T> (*)(type[i]) which is a variant of type (*)(T) where type is X<int> and T is char[6]. ] 11Template arguments cannot be deduced from function arguments involving constructs other than the ones specified above. 12A template type argument cannot be deduced from the type of a non-type template-argument. [Example: template<class T, T i> void f(double a[10][i]); int v[10][20]; f(v); // error: argument for template-parameter T cannot be deduced --end example] 13[Note: except for reference and pointer types, a major array bound is not part of a function parameter type and cannot be deduced from an argument: template<int i> void f1(int a[10][i]); template<int i> void f2(int a[i][20]); template<int i> void f3(int (&a)[i][20]); void g() { int v[10][20]; f1(v); // OK: i deduced to be 20 f1<20>(v); // OK f2(v); // error: cannot deduce template-argument i f2<10>(v); // OK f3(v); // OK: i deduced to be 10 } 14If, in the declaration of a function template with a non-type tem- plate-parameter, the non-type template-parameter is used in an expres- sion in the function parameter-list, the corresponding template-argu- ment must always be explicitly specified or deduced elsewhere because type deduction would otherwise always fail for such a template-argu- ment. template<int i> class A { /* ... */ }; template<short s> void g(A<s+1>); void k() { A<1> a; g(a); // error: deduction fails for expression s+1 g<0>(a); // OK } --end note] [Note: template parameters do not participate in template argument deduction if they are used only in nondeduced contexts. For example, template<int i, typename T> T deduce(typename A<T>::X x, // T is not deduced here T t, // but T is deduced here typename B<i>::Y y); // i is not deduced here A<int> a; B<77> b; int x = deduce<77>(a.xm, 62, y.ym); // T is deduced to be int, a.xm must be convertible to // A<int>::X // i is explicitly specified to be 77, y.ym must be convertible // to B<77>::Y --end note] 15If, in the declaration of a function template with a non-type tem- plate-parameter, the non-type template-parameter is used in an expression in the function parameter-list and, if the corresponding template-argument is deduced, the template-argument type shall match the type of the template-parameter exactly, except that a template- argument deduced from an array bound may be of any integral type.7) [Example: template<int i> class A { /* ... */ }; template<short s> void f(A<s>); void k1() { A<1> a; f(a); // error: deduction fails for conversion from int to short f<1>(a); // OK } template<const short cs> class B { }; template<short s> void h(B<s>); void k2() { B<1> b; g(b); // OK: cv-qualifiers are ignored on template parameter types } --end example] 16A template-argument can be deduced from a pointer to function or pointer to member function argument if the set of overloaded functions does not contain function templates and at most one of a set of over- loaded functions provides a unique match. [Example: template<class T> void f(void(*)(T,int)); template<class T> void foo(T,int); void g(int,int); void g(char,int); void h(int,int,int); void h(char,int); int m() { f(&g); // error: ambiguous f(&h); // OK: void h(char,int) is a unique match f(&foo); // error: type deduction fails because foo is a template } --end example] 17A template type-parameter cannot be deduced from the type of a func- tion default argument. [Example: template <class T> void f(T = 5, T = 7); void g() { f(1); // OK: call f<int>(1,7) f(); // error: cannot deduce T f<int>(); // OK: call f<int>(5,7) } --end example] _________________________ 7) Although the template-argument corresponding to a template-parame- ter of type bool may be deduced from an array bound, the resulting value will always be true because the array bound will be non-zero. 18The template-argument corresponding to a template template-parameter is deduced from the type of the template-argument of a class template specialization used in the argument list of a function call. [Exam- ple: template <template X<class T> > struct A { }; template <template X<class T> > void f(A<X>) { } template<class T> struct B { }; A<B> ab; f(ab); // calls f(A<B>) --end example] [Note: a default template-argument cannot be specified in a function template declaration or definition; therefore default template-arguments cannot be used to influence template argument deduction. ] 14.8.3 Overload resolution [temp.over] 1 A function template can be overloaded either by (non-template) func- tions of its name or by (other) function templates of the same name. When a call to that name is written (explicitly, or implicitly using the operator notation), template argument deduction (_temp.deduct_) and checking of any explicit template arguments (_temp.arg_) are per- formed for each function template to find the template argument values (if any) that can be used with that function template to instantiate a function template specialization that can be invoked with the call arguments. For each function template, if the argument deduction and checking succeeds, the template-arguments (deduced and/or explicit) are used to instantiate a single function template specialization which is added to the candidate functions set to be used in overload resolution. If, for a given function template, argument deduction fails, no such function is added to the set of candidate functions for that template. The complete set of candidate functions includes all the function templates instantiated in this way and all of the non- template overloaded functions of the same name. The function template specializations are treated like any other functions in the remainder of overload resolution, except as explicitly noted in _over.match.best_.8) 2 [Example: _________________________ 8) The parameters of function template specializations contain no tem- plate parameter types. The set of conversions allowed on deduced ar- guments is limited, because the argument deduction process produces function templates with parameters that either match the call argu- ments exactly or differ only in ways that can be bridged by the al- lowed limited conversions. Non-deduced arguments allow the full range of conversions. Note also that _over.match.best_ specifies that a non-template function will be given preference over a template spe- cialization if the two functions are otherwise equally good candidates for an overload match. template<class T> T max(T a, T b) { return a>b?a:b; } void f(int a, int b, char c, char d) { int m1 = max(a,b); // max(int a, int b) char m2 = max(c,d); // max(char a, char b) int m3 = max(a,c); // error: cannot generate max(int,char) } 3 Adding the non-template function int max(int,int); to the example above would resolve the third call, by providing a function that could be called for max(a,c) after using the standard conversion of char to int for c. 4 Here is an example involving conversions on a function argument involved in template-argument deduction: template<class T> struct B { /* ... */ }; template<class T> struct D : public B<T> { /* ... */ }; template<class T> void f(B<T>&); void g(B<int>& bi, D<int>& di) { f(bi); // f(bi) f(di); // f( (B<int>&)di ) } 5 Here is an example involving conversions on a function argument not involved in template-parameter deduction: template<class T> void f(T*,int); // #1 template<class T> void f(T,char); // #2 void h(int* pi, int i, char c) { f(pi,i); // #1: f<int>(pi,i) f(pi,c); // #2: f<int*>(pi,c) f(i,c); // #2: f<int>(i,c); f(i,i); // #2: f<int>(i,char(i)) } --end example] 6 Only the signature of a function template specialization is needed to enter the specialization in a set of candidate functions. Therefore only the function template declaration is needed to resolve a call for which a template specialization is a candidate. [Example: template<class T> void f(T); // declaration void g() { f("Annemarie"); // call of f<const char*> } The call of f is well-formed even if the template f is only declared and not defined at the point of the call. The program will be ill- formed unless a specialization for f<const char*>, either implicitly or explicitly generated, is present in some translation unit. ]