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11 Member access control [class.access]
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1 A member of a class can be
--private; that is, its name can be used only by member functions,
static data members, and friends of the class in which it is
declared.
--protected; that is, its name can be used only by member functions,
static data members, and friends of the class in which it is
declared and by member functions, static data members, and friends
of classes derived from this class (see _class.protected_).
--public; that is, its name can be used anywhere without access
restriction.
2 Members of a class defined with the keyword class are private by
default. Members of a class defined with the keywords struct or union
are public by default. [Example:
class X {
int a; // X::a is private by default
};
struct S {
int a; // S::a is public by default
};
--end example]
3 Access control is applied uniformly to all names.
4 It should be noted that it is access to members and base classes that
is controlled, not their visibility. Names of members are still visi
ble, and implicit conversions to base classes are still considered,
when those members and base classes are inaccessible. The interpreta
tion of a given construct is established without regard to access con
trol. If the interpretation established makes use of inaccessible
member names or base classes, the construct is ill-formed.
5 All access controls in this clause affect the ability to access a
class member from a particular scope. In particular, access controls
apply as usual to members accessed as part of a function return type,
even though it is not possible to determine the access privileges of
that use without first parsing the rest of the function. [Example:
class A {
typedef int I; // private member
I f();
friend I g(I);
static I x;
};
A::I A::f() { return 0; }
A::I g(A::I);
A::I g(A::I p) { return 0; }
A::I A::x = 0;
Here, all the uses of A::I are well-formed because A::f and A::x are
members of class A and g is a friend of class A. This implies, for
example, that access checking on the first use of A::I must be
deferred until it is determined that this use of A::I is as the return
type of a member of class A. --end example]
6 It is necessary to name a class member to define it outside of the
definition of its class. For this reason, no access checking is per
formed on the components of the qualified-id used to name the member
in the declarator of such a definition. [Example:
class D {
class E {
static int m;
};
};
int D::E::m = 1; // Okay, no access error on private `E'
--end example]
11.1 Access specifiers [class.access.spec]
1 Member declarations can be labeled by an access-specifier
(_class.derived_):
access-specifier : member-specificationopt
An access-specifier specifies the access rules for members following
it until the end of the class or until another access-specifier is
encountered. [Example:
class X {
int a; // X::a is private by default: `class' used
public:
int b; // X::b is public
int c; // X::c is public
};
--end example] Any number of access specifiers is allowed and no par
ticular order is required. [Example:
struct S {
int a; // S::a is public by default: `struct' used
protected:
int b; // S::b is protected
private:
int c; // S::c is private
public:
int d; // S::d is public
};
--end example]
2 The order of allocation of data members with separate access-specifier
labels is implementation-defined (_class.mem_).
11.2 Access specifiers for base classes [class.access.base]
1 If a class is declared to be a base class (_class.derived_) for
another class using the public access specifier, the public members of
the base class are accessible as public members of the derived class
and protected members of the base class are accessible as protected
members of the derived class. If a class is declared to be a base
class for another class using the protected access specifier, the pub
lic and protected members of the base class are accessible as pro
tected members of the derived class. If a class is declared to be a
base class for another class using the private access specifier, the
public and protected members of the base class are accessible as pri
vate members of the derived class1).
2 In the absence of an access-specifier for a base class, public is
assumed when the derived class is declared struct and private is
assumed when the class is declared class. [Example:
class B { /* ... */ };
class D1 : private B { /* ... */ };
class D2 : public B { /* ... */ };
class D3 : B { /* ... */ }; // `B' private by default
struct D4 : public B { /* ... */ };
struct D5 : private B { /* ... */ };
struct D6 : B { /* ... */ }; // `B' public by default
class D7 : protected B { /* ... */ };
struct D8 : protected B { /* ... */ };
Here B is a public base of D2, D4, and D6, a private base of D1, D3,
and D5, and a protected base of D7 and D8. --end example]
3 [Note: Because of the rules on pointer conversion (_conv.ptr_), a
static member of a private base class might be inaccessible as an
inherited name, but accessible directly. For example,
_________________________
1) As specified previously in _class.access_, private members of a
base class remain inaccessible even to derived classes unless friend
declarations within the base class declaration are used to grant ac
cess explicitly.
class B {
public:
int mi; // nonstatic member
static int si; // static member
};
class D : private B {
};
class DD : public D {
void f();
};
void DD::f() {
mi = 3; // error: mi is private in D
si = 3; // error: si is private in D
B b;
b.mi = 3; // okay (b.mi is different from this->mi)
b.si = 3; // okay (b.si is different from this->si)
B::si = 3; // okay
B* bp1 = this; // error: B is a private base class
B* bp2 = (B*)this; // okay with cast
bp2->mi = 3; // okay: access through a pointer to B.
}
--end note]
4 A base class is said to be accessible if an invented public member of
the base class is accessible. If a base class is accessible, one can
implicitly convert a pointer to a derived class to a pointer to that
base class (_conv.ptr_, _conv.mem_). [Note: It follows that members
and friends of a class X can implicitly convert an X* to a pointer to
a private or protected immediate base class of X. ]
11.3 Access declarations [class.access.dcl]
1 The access of a member of a base class can be changed in the derived
class by mentioning its qualified-id in the derived class declaration.
Such mention is called an access declaration. The base class member
is given, in the derived class, the access in effect in the derived
class declaration at the point of the access declaration. The effect
of an access declaration qualified-id ; is defined to be equivalent to
the declaration using qualified-id ;.2)
2 [Example:
_________________________
2) Access declarations are deprecated; member using-declarations
(_namespace.udecl_) provide a better means of doing the same things.
In earlier versions of the C++ language, access declarations were more
limited; they were generalized and made equivalent to using-
declarations in the interest of simplicity. Programmers are encour
aged to use using, rather than the new capabilities of access declara
tions, in new code.
class A {
public:
int z;
int z1;
};
class B : public A {
int a;
public:
int b, c;
int bf();
protected:
int x;
int y;
};
class D : private B {
int d;
public:
B::c; // adjust access to `B::c'
B::z; // adjust access to `A::z'
A::z1; // adjust access to `A::z1'
int e;
int df();
protected:
B::x; // adjust access to `B::x'
int g;
};
class X : public D {
int xf();
};
int ef(D&);
int ff(X&);
The external function ef can use only the names c, z, z1, e, and df.
Being a member of D, the function df can use the names b, c, z, z1,
bf, x, y, d, e, df, and g, but not a. Being a member of B, the func
tion bf can use the members a, b, c, z, z1, bf, x, and y. The func
tion xf can use the public and protected names from D, that is, c, z,
z1, e, and df (public), and x, and g (protected). Thus the external
function ff has access only to c, z, z1, e, and df. If D were a pro
tected or private base class of X, xf would have the same privileges
as before, but ff would have no access at all. ]
11.4 Friends [class.friend]
1 A friend of a class is a function that is not a member of the class
but is permitted to use the private and protected member names from
the class. The name of a friend is not in the scope of the class, and
the friend is not called with the member access operators (_expr.ref_)
unless it is a member of another class. [Example: the following exam
ple illustrates the differences between members and friends:
class X {
int a;
friend void friend_set(X*, int);
public:
void member_set(int);
};
void friend_set(X* p, int i) { p->a = i; }
void X::member_set(int i) { a = i; }
void f()
{
X obj;
friend_set(&obj,10);
obj.member_set(10);
}
--end example]
2 When a friend declaration refers to an overloaded name or operator,
only the function specified by the parameter types becomes a friend.
A member function of a class X can be a friend of a class Y. [Exam
ple:
class Y {
friend char* X::foo(int);
// ...
};
--end example] Declaring a class to be a friend implies that private
and protected names from the class granting friendship can be used in
the class receiving it. [Example:
class X {
enum { a=100 };
friend class Y;
};
class Y {
int v[X::a]; // ok, Y is a friend of X
};
class Z {
int v[X::a]; // error: X::a is private
};
--end example] Access to private and protected names is also granted
to member functions of the friend class (as if the functions were each
friends) and to the static data member definitions of the friend
class.
3 A function declared as a friend and not previously declared, is intro
duced in the smallest enclosing non-class, non-function prototype
scope that contains the friend declaration. [Note: For a class men
tioned as a friend and not previously declared, see _dcl.type.elab_.
]
4 A function first declared in a friend declaration has external linkage
(_basic.link_). Otherwise, it retains its previous linkage
(_dcl.stc_). No storage-class-specifier shall appear in the decl-
specifier-seq of a friend declaration.
5 A function of namespace scope can be defined in a friend declaration
of a non-local class (_class.local_). The function is then inline. A
friend function defined in a class is in the (lexical) scope of the
class in which it is defined. A friend function defined outside the
class is not (_class.scope_).
6 Friend declarations are not affected by access-specifiers
(_class.mem_).
7 Friendship is neither inherited nor transitive. [Example:
class A {
friend class B;
int a;
};
class B {
friend class C;
};
class C {
void f(A* p)
{
p->a++; // error: C is not a friend of A
// despite being a friend of a friend
}
};
class D : public B {
void f(A* p)
{
p->a++; // error: D is not a friend of A
// despite being derived from a friend
}
};
--end example]
11.5 Protected member access [class.protected]
1 A friend or a member function of a derived class can access a pro
tected static member, type or enumerator constant of a base class; if
the access is through a qualified-id, the nested-name-specifier must
name the derived class (or any class derived from that class).
2 A friend or a member function of a derived class can access a pro
tected nonstatic member of a base class. Except when forming a
pointer to member (_expr.unary.op_), the access must be through a
pointer to, reference to, or object of the derived class itself (or
any class derived from that class) (_expr.ref_). If the nonstatic
protected member thus accessed is also qualified, the qualification is
ignored for the purpose of this access checking. If the access is to
form a pointer to member, the nested-name-specifier shall name the
derived class (or any class derived from that class). [Example:
class B {
protected:
int i;
static int j;
};
class D1 : public B {
};
class D2 : public B {
friend void fr(B*,D1*,D2*);
void mem(B*,D1*);
};
void fr(B* pb, D1* p1, D2* p2)
{
pb->i = 1; // illegal
p1->i = 2; // illegal
p2->i = 3; // ok (access through a D2)
p2->B::i = 4; // ok (access through a D2, qualification ignored)
int B::* pmi_B = &B::i; // illegal
int B::* pmi_B = &D2::i; // ok (type of &D2::i is "int B::*")
B::j = 5; // illegal
D2::j =6; // ok (access through a D2)
}
void D2::mem(B* pb, D1* p1)
{
pb->i = 1; // illegal
p1->i = 2; // illegal
i = 3; // ok (access through `this')
B::i = 4; // ok (access through `this', qualification ignored)
j = 5; // ok (static member accessed by derived class function)
B::j = 6; // illegal
}
void g(B* pb, D1* p1, D2* p2)
{
pb->i = 1; // illegal
p1->i = 2; // illegal
p2->i = 3; // illegal
}
--end example]
11.6 Access to virtual functions [class.access.virt]
1 The access rules (_class.access_) for a virtual function are deter
mined by its declaration and are not affected by the rules for a func
tion that later overrides it. [Example:
class B {
public:
virtual int f();
};
class D : public B {
private:
int f();
};
void f()
{
D d;
B* pb = &d;
D* pd = &d;
pb->f(); // ok: B::f() is public,
// D::f() is invoked
pd->f(); // error: D::f() is private
}
--end example] Access is checked at the call point using the type of
the expression used to denote the object for which the member function
is called (B* in the example above). The access of the member func
tion in the class in which it was defined (D in the example above) is
in general not known.
11.7 Multiple access [class.paths]
1 If a name can be reached by several paths through a multiple inheri
tance graph, the access is that of the path that gives most access.
[Example:
class W { public: void f(); };
class A : private virtual W { };
class B : public virtual W { };
class C : public A, public B {
void f() { W::f(); } // ok
};
Since W::f() is available to C::f() along the public path through B,
access is allowed. --end example]