function_ref: a non-owning reference to a Callable

Abstract

This paper proposes the addition of function_ref<R(Args...)> to the Standard Library, a “vocabulary type” for non-owning references to Callable objects.

Changelog and polls

From R3 to R4

Changes

• Stripped qualifiers from exposition-only erased_fn_type;

• Removed constexpr due to implementation concerns - this can be re-introduced in a future paper;

• Changed wording to give instructions to the editor;

• Added paragraph numbers and reordered sections;

• Added brief before-class synopsis;

• Added an explicit bullet point for trivial copyability;

• Removed defaulted functions (copy constructor and assignment) from specification;

• Reworded specification following P1369;

• Mention exposition-only members in template constructor;

• Add “see below” to noexcept on operator().

From R2 to R3

Changes

• Removed !f precondition for construction/assignment from std::function f;

• function_ref::operator() is now unconditionally const-qualified.

Polls

Do we want to remove the precondition that !f must hold when function_ref is constructed/assigned from an instance of std::function f?

SF F N A SA

1 8 1 0 0

Should function_ref::operator() be unconditionally const-qualified?

SF F N A SA

8 2 0 1 0

Should function_ref fully support the Callable concept at the potential cost of sizeof(function_ref) > sizeof(void(*)()) * 2?

SF F N A SA

6 4 0 0 0

From R1 to R2

Changes

• Made copy constructor and copy assignment = default;

• Changed uses of std::decay_t to std::remove_cvref_t;

• Added “exposition only” void* and pointer to function data members;

• Moved “Open questions” section to “Annex: previously open questions”;

• Change function_ref(F&&) constructor’s precondition to use remove_cvref_t to check if F is an instance of the function class template;

• Dropped function_ref<Signature>:: qualification in member function specification.

Polls

We want to prevent construction of std::function from std::function_ref (but not other callable-taking things like std::bind).

SF F N A SA

0 0 4 8 0

We want to revise the paper to include discussion of ref-qualified callables.

SF F N A SA

0 3 6 6 0

Forward paper as-is to LWG for C++20?

SF F N A SA

3 9 3 0 0

From R0 to R1

Changes

• Removed empty state and comparisons with nullptr;

• Removed default constructor;

• Added support for noexcept and const-qualified function signatures (these are propagated to function_ref::operator());

• Added deduction guides for function pointers and arbitrary callable objects with well-formed &remove_reference_t<F>::operator();

• Added two new bullet points to “Open questions”;

• Added “Example implementation”;

• Added “Feature test macro”;

• Removed noexcept from constructor and assignment.

Semantics: pointer versus reference

option 1

function_ref, non-nullable, not default constructible

option 2

function_ptr, nullable, default constructible

We want 1 and 2

SF F N A SA

1 2 8 3 6

ref vs ptr

SR R N P SP

6 5 2 5 0

The poll above clearly shows that the desired direction for function_ref is towards a non nullable, non default-constructible reference type. This revision (P0792R2) removes the “empty state” and default constructibility from the proposed function_ref. If those semantics are required by users, they can trivially wrap function_ref into an std::optional<function_ref</* ... */>>.

target and target_type

We want target and target-type (consistent with std::function) if they have no overhead

Unanimous consent

We want target and target-type (consistent with std::function) even though they have overhead

SF F N A SA

0 0 1 9 4

I am not sure whether target and target_type can be implemented without introducing overhead. I seek the guidance of the committee or any interested reader to figure that out. If they require overhead, I agree with the poll: they will be left out of the proposal.

Table of contents

• function_ref: a non-owning reference to a Callable
  • Abstract
  • Changelog and polls
    • From R2 to R3
      • Changes
      • Polls
    • From R1 to R2
      • Changes
      • Polls
    • From R0 to R1
      • Changes
      • Semantics: pointer versus reference
      • target and target_type
  • Table of contents
  • Overview
  • Motivating example
  • Impact on the Standard
  • Alternatives
  • Changes to <functional> header
  • Class synopsis
  • Specification
  • Feature test macro
  • Example implementation
  • Existing practice
  • Possible issues
  • Bikeshedding
  • Acknowledgments
  • Annex: previously open questions
  • References

Overview

Since the advent of C++11 writing more functional code has become easier: functional programming patterns and idioms have become powerful additions to the C++ developer’s toolbox. “Higher-order functions” are one of the key ideas of the functional paradigm - in short, they are functions that take functions as arguments and/or return functions as results.

The need of referring to an existing Callable object comes up often when writing functional C++ code, but the Standard Library unfortunately doesn’t provide a flexible facility that allows to do so. Let’s consider the existing utilities:

• Pointers to functions are only useful when the entity they refer to is stateless (i.e. a non-member function or a capture-less lambda), but they are cumbersome to use otherwise. Fully supporting the Callable concept requires also explicitly dealing with pointers to member functions and pointers to data members.

• std::function seamlessly works with Callable objects, but it’s a “general-purpose polymorphic function wrapper” that may introduce unnecessary overhead and that owns the Callable it stores. std::function is a great choice when an owning type-erased wrapper is required, but it’s often abused when its ownership semantics and its flexibility are not required.

  • Note that when std::function is constructed/assigned with a std::reference_wrapper to a Callable, it has reference semantics.

  • Another limitation of std::function is the fact that the stored Callable must be CopyConstructible.

• Templates can be used to avoid unnecessary costs and to uniformly handle any Callable object, but they are hard to constrain to a particular signature and force code to be defined in headers.

This paper proposes the introduction of a new function_ref class template, which is akin to std::string_view. This paper describes function_ref as a non-owning lightweight wrapper over any Callable object.

Motivating example

Here’s one example use case that benefits from higher-order functions: a retry(n, f) function that attempts to synchronously call f up to n times until success. This example might model the real-world scenario of repeatedly querying a flaky web service.

struct payload { /* ... */ };

// Repeatedly invokes `action` up to `times` repetitions.
// Immediately returns if `action` returns a valid `payload`.
// Returns `std::nullopt` otherwise.
std::optional<payload> retry(std::size_t times, /* ????? */ action);

The passed-in action should be a Callable which takes no arguments and returns std::optional<payload>. Let’s see how retry can be implemented with various techniques:

• Using pointers to functions:

  std::optional<payload> retry(std::size_t times,
                               std::optional<payload>(*action)())
  {
      /* ... */
  }

  (on godbolt.org)

  • Advantages:

    • Easy to implement: no need to use a template or any explicit constraint (e.g. std::enable_if_t<...>). The type of the pointer specifies exactly which functions can be passed, no extra constraints are required.

    • Minimal overhead: no allocations, no exceptions, and action is as big as a pointer.

      • Modern compilers are able to completely inline the call to action, producing optimal assembly.

  • Drawbacks:

    • This technique doesn’t support stateful Callable objects.

• Using a template:

  template <typename F>
  auto retry(std::size_t times, F&& action)
      -> std::enable_if_t<std::is_invocable_r_v<std::optional<payload>, F&&>,
                          std::optional<payload>>
  {
      /* ... */
  }

  (on godbolt.org)

  • Advantages:

    • Supports arbitrary Callable objects, such as stateful closures.

    • Zero-overhead: no allocations, no exceptions, no indirections.

  • Drawbacks:

    • Harder to implement and less readable: users must use std::enable_if_t and std::invocable_r_v to ensure that action’s signature is properly constrained.

    • retry must be defined in a header file. This might be undesiderable when trying to minimize compilation times.

• Using std::function:

  std::optional<payload> retry(std::size_t times,
                               std::function<std::optional<payload>()> action)
  {
      /* ... */
  }

  (on godbolt.org)

  • Advantages:

    • Supports arbitrary Callable objects, such as stateful closures.

    • Easy to implement: no need to use a template or any explicit constraint. The type fully constrains what can be passed.

  • Drawbacks:

    • Unclear ownership semantics: action might either own the the stored Callable, or just refer to an existing Callable if initialized with a std::reference_wrapper.

    • Can potentially have significant overhead:

      • Even though the implementation makes use of SBO (small buffer optimization), std::function might allocate if the stored object is large enough. This requires one extra branch on construction/assignment, one potential dynamic allocation, and makes action as big as the size of the internal buffer.

      • If the implementation doesn’t make use of SBO, std::function will always allocate on construction/assignment.

      • Modern compilers are not able to inline std::function, often resulting in very poor assembly compared to the previously mentioned techniques.

    • Mandatory use of exceptions: std::function might throw if an allocation fails, and throws std::bad_function_call if it’s invoked while unset.

• Using the proposed function_ref:

  std::optional<payload> retry(std::size_t times,
                               function_ref<std::optional<payload>()> action)
  {
      /* ... */
  }

  (on godbolt.org)

  • Advantages:

    • Supports arbitrary Callable objects, such as stateful closures.

    • Easy to implement: no need to use a template or any constraint. The type fully constrains what can be passed.

    • Clear ownership semantics: action is a non-owning reference to an existing Callable.

    • Small overhead: no allocations, no exceptions, and action is as big as two pointers.

      • Modern compilers are able to completely inline the call to action, producing optimal assembly.

Impact on the Standard

This proposal is a pure library extension. It does not require changes to any existing part of the Standard.

Alternatives

The only existing viable alternative to function_ref currently is std::function + std::reference_wrapper. The Standard guarantees that when a std::reference_wrapper is used to construct/assign to a std::function no allocations will occur and no exceptions will be thrown.

Using std::function for non-owning references is suboptimal for various reasons.

1. The ownership semantics of a std::function are unclear - they change depending on whether or not the std::function was constructed/assigned with a std::reference_wrapper.

   void foo(std::function<void()> f);
   // `f` could be referring to an existing Callable, or could own one.
   
   void bar(function_ref<void()> f);
   // `f` unambiguously is a non-owning reference to an existing Callable.

2. This technique doesn’t work with temporaries. This is a huge drawback as it prevents stateful temporary lambdas from being passed as callbacks.

   void foo(std::function<void()> f);
   
   int main()
   {
       int x = 0;
       foo(std::ref([&x]{ ++x; }); // does not compile
   }

   (on godbolt.org)

   The code above doesn’t compile, as std::ref only accepts non-const lvalue references (additionally, std::cref is explicitly deleted for rvalue references). Avoiding the use of std::ref breaks the guarantee that f won’t allocate or throw an exception on construction.

3. std::function is harder for compilers to optimize compared to the proposed function_ref. This is true due to various reasons:

   • std::function can allocate and/or throw exceptions on construction and/or assigment.

   • std::function might use SBO, which could require an additional branch during construction/assignment, make inlining more difficult, and unnecessarily increase memory usage.

   Rough benchmarks comparing the generated assembly of a std::function parameter and a function_ref parameter against a template parameter show that:

   • std::function, on average, generates approximately 5x more assembly than a template parameter.

   • function_ref, on average, generates approximately 1.5x more assembly than a template parameter.

   A description of the benchmarking techniques used and the full results can be found on my article “passing functions to functions” ¹.

Changes to <functional> header

Add the following to [functional.syn]:

namespace std
{
    // ...

    template <typename Signature> class function_ref;

    template <typename Signature>
    void swap(function_ref<Signature>& lhs, function_ref<Signature>& rhs) noexcept;

    // ...
}

Class synopsis

Create a new section “Class template function_ref”, [functionref]" with the following:

namespace std
{
    template <typename Signature>
    class function_ref
    {
        void* erased_object; // exposition only

        R(*erased_function)(Args...); // exposition only
        // `R`, and `Args...` are the return type, and the parameter-type-list,
        // of the function type `Signature`, respectively.

    public:
        function_ref(const function_ref&) noexcept = default;

        template <typename F>
        function_ref(F&&);

        function_ref& operator=(const function_ref&) noexcept = default;

        template <typename F>
        function_ref& operator=(F&&);

        void swap(function_ref&) noexcept;

        R operator()(Args...) const noexcept(see below);
        // `R` and `Args...` are the return type and the parameter-type-list
        // of the function type `Signature`, respectively.
    };

    template <typename Signature>
    void swap(function_ref<Signature>&, function_ref<Signature>&) noexcept;

    template <typename R, typename... Args>
    function_ref(R (*)(Args...)) -> function_ref<R(Args...)>;

    template <typename R, typename... Args>
    function_ref(R (*)(Args...) noexcept) -> function_ref<R(Args...) noexcept>;

    template <typename F>
    function_ref(F) -> function_ref<see below>;
}

1. function_ref<Signature> is a Cpp17CopyConstructible and Cpp17CopyAssignable reference to an Invocable object with signature Signature.

2. function_ref<Signature> is a trivially copyable type.

3. The template argument Signature shall be a non-volatile-qualified function type.

Specification

template <typename F>
function_ref(F&& f);

• Constraints: is_same_v<remove_cvref_t<F>, function_ref> is false and

  • If Signature has a noexcept specifier: is_nothrow_invocable_r_v<R, cv-qualifiers F&, Args...> is true;

  • Otherwise: is_invocable_r_v<R, cv-qualifiers F&, Args...> is true.

  Where R, Args..., and cv-qualifiers are the return type, the parameter-type-list, and the sequence “cv-qualifier-seq-opt” of the function type Signature, respectively.

• Expects: f is neither a null function pointer value nor a null member pointer value.

• Effects: Constructs a function_ref referring to f.

• Remarks: erased_object will point to f. erased_function will point to a function whose invocation is equivalent to return INVOKE<R>(f, std::forward<Args>(xs)...);, where f is qualified with the same cv-qualifiers as the function type Signature.

template <typename F>
function_ref& operator=(F&&);

• Constraints: is_same_v<remove_cvref_t<F>, function_ref> is false and

  • If Signature has a noexcept specifier: is_nothrow_invocable_r_v<R, cv-qualifiers F&, Args...> is true;

  • Otherwise: is_invocable_r_v<R, cv-qualifiers F&, Args...> is true.

  Where R, Args..., and cv-qualifiers are the return type, the parameter-type-list, and the sequence “cv-qualifier-seq-opt” of the function type Signature, respectively.

• Expects: f is neither a null function pointer value nor a null member pointer value.

• Ensures: *this refers to f.

• Returns: *this.

void swap(function_ref& rhs) noexcept;

• Effects: Exchanges the values of *this and rhs.

R operator()(Args... xs) qualifiers noexcept(see below);

• Effects: Equivalent to return INVOKE<R>(f, std::forward<Args>(xs)...);, where f is the callable object referred to by *this, qualified with the same cv-qualifiers as the function type Signature.

• Remarks: R and Args... are the return type and the parameter-type-list of the function type Signature, respectively. The expression inside noexcept is the sequence “noexcept-specifier-opt” of the function type Signature.

template <typename F>
function_ref(F) -> function_ref<see below>;

• Constraints: &F​::​operator() is well-formed when treated as an unevaluated operand.

• Remarks: If decltype(&F::​operator()) is of the form R(G​::​*)(A...) qualifiers for a class type G, then the deduced type is function_ref<R(A...) qualifiers>.

template <typename Signature>
void swap(function_ref<Signature>& lhs, function_ref<Signature>& rhs) noexcept;

• Effects: Equivalent to lhs.swap(rhs).

Feature test macro

Append to §17.3.1 General [support.limits.general]’s Table 36 one additional entry:

Example implementation

The most up-to-date implementation, created by Simon Brand, is available on GitHub/TartanLlama/function_ref.

An older example implementation is available here on GitHub/SuperV1234/Experiments.

Existing practice

Many facilities similar to function_ref exist and are widely used in large codebases. Here are some examples:

• The llvm::function_ref ² class template is used throughout LLVM. A quick GitHub search on the LLVM organization reports hundreds of usages both in llvm and clang ³.

• Facebook’s Folly libraries ⁴ provide a folly::FunctionRef ⁵ class template. A GitHub search shows that it’s used in projects proxygen and fbthrift ⁶.

• GNU’s popular debugger, gdb ⁷, uses gdb::function_view ⁸ throughout its code base. The documentation in the linked header file ⁹ is particularly well-written and greatly motivates the need for this facility.

Additionally, combining results from GitHub searches (excluding “llvm” and “folly”) for “function_ref” ¹⁰, “function_view” ¹¹, “FunctionRef” ¹², and “FunctionView” ¹³ roughly shows more than 2800 occurrences.

Possible issues

Accepting temporaries in function_ref’s constructor is extremely useful in the most common use case: using it as a function parameter. E.g.

void foo(function_ref<void()>);

int main()
{
    foo([]{ });
}

The usage shown above is completely safe: the temporary closure generated by the lambda expression is guarantee to live for the entirety of the call to foo. Unfortunately, this also means that the following code snippet will result in undefined behavior:

int main()
{
    function_ref<void()> f{[]{ }};
    // ...
    f(); // undefined behavior
}

The above closure is a temporary whose lifetime ends after the function_ref constructor call. The function_ref will store an address to a “dead” closure - invoking it will produce undefined behavior ¹⁴. As an example, AddressSanitizer detects an invalid memory access in this gist ¹⁵. Note that this problem is not unique to function_ref: the recently standardized std::string_view ¹⁶ has the same problem ¹⁷.

I strongly believe that accepting temporaries is a “necessary evil” for both function_ref and std::string_view, as it enables countless valid use cases. The problem of dangling references has been always present in the language - a more general solution like Herb Sutter and Neil Macintosh’s lifetime tracking ¹⁸ would prevent mistakes without limiting the usefulness of view/reference classes.

Bikeshedding

The name function_ref is subject to bikeshedding. Here are some other potential names:

• function_view

• callable_ref

• callable_view

• invocable_ref

• invocable_view

• fn_view

• fn_ref

Acknowledgments

Thanks to Agustín Bergé, Dietmar Kühl, Eric Niebler, Tim van Deurzen, and Alisdair Meredith for providing very valuable feedback on earlier drafts of this proposal.

Annex: previously open questions

• Why does operator() take Args... and not Args&&...?

  • While taking Args&&... would minimize the amount of copies/moves, it would be a pessimization for small value types. Also, taking Args... is consistent with how std::function works.

• function_ref<Signature>’s signature currently only accepts any combination of const and noexcept. Should this be extended to include ref-qualifiers? This would mean that function_ref::operator() would first cast the referenced callable to either an lvalue reference or rvalue reference (depending on Signature’s ref qualifiers) before invoking it. See P0045R1 ¹⁹ and N4159 ²⁰) for additional context.

  • LEWG agreed that const and noexcept have useful cases, but we could not find enough motivation to include support for ref-qualified signatures. Nevertheless, this could be added as a non-breaking extension to function_ref in the future.

• Constructing a std::function<Signature> from a function_ref<Signature> is completely different from constructing a std::string from a std::string_view: the latter does actually create a copy while the former remains a reference. It may be reasonable to prevent implicit conversions from function_ref to std::function in order to avoid surprising dangerous behavior.

  • LEWG decided to not prevent std::function construction from std::function_ref as it would special-case std::function and there are other utilities in the Standard Library (and outside of it) that would need a similar change (e.g. std::bind).

• function_ref::operator() is not currently marked as constexpr due to implementation issues. I could not figure a way to implement a constexpr-friendly operator(). Is there any possibility it could be marked as constexpr to increase the usefulness of function_ref?

  • We agreed that there is probably no way of currently having a constexpr function_ref::operator() and that we do not want to impose that burden on implementations.

• Should the !f precondition when constructing function_ref from an instance f of std::function be removed? The behavior in that case is well-defined, as f is guarateed to throw on invocation.

  • LEWG decided to remove the precondition as invoking a default-constructed instance of std::function is well-defined.

• The std::is_nothrow_invocable constraint in function_ref construction/assignment for noexcept signatures prevents users from providing a non-noexcept function, even if they know that it cannot ever throw (e.g. C functions). Should this constraint be removed? Should an explicit constructor without the constraint be provided?

  • LEWG agreed that the constraint should be kept and no extra constructors should be added as users can use a noexcept lambda to achieve the same result.

• Propagating const to function_ref::operator() doesn’t make sense when looking at function_ref as a simple “reference” class. const instances of function_ref should be able to invoke a mutable lambda, as the state of function_ref itself doesn’t change. E.g.

  auto l0 = []() mutable { };
  const function_ref<void()> fr{l0};
  
  fr(); // Currently a compilation error

  An alternative is to only propagate noexcept from the signature to function_ref::operator(), and unconditionally const-qualify function_ref::operator(). Do we want this?

  • LEWG agreed to mark function_ref::operator() const, unconditionally.

• We want to avoid double indirection when a function_ref instance is initialized with a reference_wrapper. function_ref could just copy the pointer stored inside the reference_wrapper instead of pointing to the wrapper itself. This cannot be covered by the as-if rule as it changes program semantics. E.g.

  auto l0 = []{ };
  auto l1 = []{ };
  auto rw = std::ref(l0);
  
  function_ref<void()> fr{rw};
  fr(); // Invokes `l0`
  
  rw = l1;
  fr(); // What is invoked?

  Is adding wording to handle std::reference_wrapper as a special case desirable?

  • LEWG decided that special-casing std::reference_wrapper is undesirable.

• Is it possible and desirable to remove function_ref’s template assignment operator from F&& and rely on an implicit conversion to function_ref + the default copy assignment operator?

  • LEWG deferred this question to LWG.

• Should function_ref only store a void* pointer for the callable object, or a union? In the first case, seemingly innocent usages will result in undefined behavior:

  void foo();
  function_ref<void()> f{&foo};
  f(); // Undefined behavior

  struct foo { void bar(); }
  function_ref<void(foo)> f{&foo::bar};
  f(foo{}); // Undefined behavior

  If a union is stored instead, the first usage could be well-formed without any extra overhead (assuming sizeof(void*) == sizeof(void(*)())). The second usage could also be made well-formed, but with size overhead as sizeof(void(C::*)()) > sizeof(void*).

  Regardless, the exposition-only members should clearly illustrate the outcome of this decision.

  Note that if we want the following to compile and be well-defined, a void(*)() would have to be stored inside function_ref:

  void foo();
  function_ref<void()> f{foo};
  f();

  • LEWG agreed that function_ref should fully support the Callable concept.

• Should the function_ref(F&&) deduction guide take its argument by value instead? This could simplify the wording.

  • LEWG deferred this question to LWG.

References