case/default inside switch statements.
Two new attributes [[likely]] and [[unlikely]] are proposed. These attributes will serve as hints on the likelihood that a subsequent statement will be executed. Compilers may use these hints to improve the code they generate in various ways.
Compiler's optimizers often have no information relating to the probability of particular statements being executed which can lead to suboptimal code generation. In many cases the excellent dynamic branch predictors on modern processors can make up for this lack of information. However, in some cases code may execute more slowly than necessary even though the programmer knew the probability of particular branches being executed because they did not have an easy way to communicate this to the compiler.
Several existing compilers including GCC and Clang implement __builtin_expect which can be used to communicate branch probability information to the optimizer . Looking at usages of __builtin_expect in the wild it seems that by far most common usage is through defining a likely macro (#define likely(x) __builtin_expect(!!(x), 1)) and an unlikely macro (#define unlikely(x) __builtin_expect(!!(x), 0) ). Probably the largest project that makes use of this functionality is the linux kernel which uses likely over 3,000 times and unlikely over 14,000 times . Other large projects using this functionality include Mozilla with over 200 usages of MOZ_LIKELY and over 7,000 usages of MOZ_UNLIKELY and Chromium which has hundreds of instances of LIKELY and UNLIKELY.
Some of the possible code generation improvements from using branch probability hints include:
Since this proposal has made claims about the potential to improve generated code and performance I have created a few small examples showing the possible benefits. All testing was performed with the GCC 6.1.1 20160621 compiler and run on a Xeon E3 1245 v3. All examples were compiled with -O3 -march=haswell plus defines to control behavior and some other test specific flags mentioned below. Tests were run three times using perf stat and the median value was taken.
This first example examines clamping integer values into the interval [0, 65535]. The code was compiled without hints and with hints that the values would not need to be adjusted. The compiled example was then run with various percentages of values that needed to be adjusted. The below results show that the hinting was able to improve performance when most values were in the expected range, but as more values were outside of the expected range the code compiled with the branch hints became slower then the code compiled without any hints.
| % values outside [0, 65535] (approx) | Time (secs) no hint | Time (secs) unlikely |
|---|---|---|
| .1% | 8.01 | 6.17 (-1.84) |
| 1% | 8.25 | 6.76 (-1.49) |
| 5% | 9.36 | 7.91 (-1.45) |
| 10% | 10.83 | 9.42 (-1.41) |
| 50% | 22.55 | 23.42 (+0.87) |
| 90% | 33.91 | 35.42 (+1.51) |
| 95% | 34.35 | 35.88 (+1.53) |
| 99% | 34.48 | 36.02 (+1.54) |
| 99.9% | 34.53 | 36.03 (+1.5) |
The next example examines the tradeoffs between using conditional move and compare/jump. This time the code was compiled without hints, with a hint to expect the comparison to succeed, and with a hint to expect the comparison to fail. The compiled example was then run with various percentages of values for which the comparison would succeed. I was unable to get GCC to stop generating conditional move instructions using only __builtin_expect so I compiled with -fno-if-conversion -fno-tree-loop-if-convert to simulate it. Recent versions of Clang (3.9+) change from generating conditional moves to comparison and jumps based on the usage of __builtin_expect.
The results show that if almost all values (99%+) will take a particular branch then generating a comparison and branch is better. When the data is slightly more random, generating a conditional move can be much better than branching code. For the 50% case I saw that over 20% of branches were mispredicted for the cases using branch instructions.
| % values set (approx) | Time (secs) cmov | Time (secs) cmp/jmp unlikely |
Time (secs) cmp/jmp likely |
|---|---|---|---|
| .1% | 4.98 | 3.47 (-1.51) | 5.58 (+0.6) |
| .5% | 4.96 | 3.76 (-1.2) | 5.95 (+0.99) |
| 1% | 4.97 | 4.12 (-0.85) | 6.31 (+1.34) |
| 50% | 4.91 | 36.02 (+31.11) | 33.74 (+28.83) |
| 99% | 4.95 | 5.44 (+0.49) | 5.04 (+0.09) |
| 99.5% | 4.91 | 5.02 (+0.11) | 4.56 (-0.35) |
| 99.9% | 4.92 | 4.73 (-0.19) | 4.09 (-0.83) |
Finally, the impact of __builtin_expect was measured on two open source projects since their code should be a bit closer to what would be seen in actual codebases than the previous examples.
The first test used pugixml to parse an example XMark file from memory.
The subsequent tests ran the bench.c benchmark from picohttpparser. These tests were run with and without -march=haswell.
All of the tests were run without using __builtin_expect, using __builtin_expect with the opposite values (1 for unlikely and 0 for likely), and using __builtin_expect with the proper values (0 for unlikely and 1 for likely).
These tests show that proper usage of __builtin_expect can have a positive impact on runtime performance. For the cases where the measured times are relatively close together I was able to run each version repeatedly and saw very similar numbers to what is reported below so the differences do seem to be real.
| Case | No expect | Opposite expect | Regular expect |
|---|---|---|---|
| pugixml | 126.0936 ms | 128.6235 ms (+2.5299) | 122.7716 ms (-3.322) |
| picohttpparser -march=haswell | 1.7857 s | 1.7763 s (-0.0094) | 1.7119 s (-0.0738) |
| picohttpparser | 3.5989 s | 3.7150 s (+0.1161) | 3.0369 s (-0.562) |
The preceding examples show that allowing the programmer to specify branch hints can lead to improved code generation and decreased run time. Due to these potential benefits this proposal aims to standardize the common likely/unlikely usage pattern so it can be used in a portable manner across compilers without macros. It also hopes to serve as encouragement for more compilers to implement this functionality.
This proposal has minimal impact on the current standard as it proposes two new attributes which do not change program semantics.
From discussions regarding this proposal it seems that there are several related cases that people would like to be able to provide hints to the compiler for:
This proposal currently focuses on solving the first of the above cases as support for such annotations already exist in at least two compilers and their usage is relatively widespread. The other cases either have limited (eg. __builtin_unpredictable in Clang) or no support in existing compilers which makes it more difficult to judge the benefits of any particular approach to solving those cases .
Objection #1: Can this feature easily result in code pessimization?
Yes, as shown by the conditional move example misusing a branch hint can definitely result in worse code with a much longer run time. This feature is primarily meant to be used after a hotspot has been found in existing code. The proposed attributes are not meant to be added to code without measuring the impact to ensure they do not end up degrading performance.
Objection #2: Why should branch hints be standardized when many compilers implement PGO?
Branch hints are definitely not meant to replace PGO; if PGO can be used it should be. PGO may be able to give the optimizer even more information then a branch hint. However, PGO and branch hints do not need to be mutually exclusive; branch hints could act as another indicator of expected frequent usage of particular branches.
Also, PGO is not always easy to use. PGO necessitates creating a realistic test scenario to profile which, depending on the application, may be difficult and opens up the possibility that some important real world usage may be missed. The additional build tooling to keep the profile up to date, particularly across multiple OS's and compilers may also be challenging.
Additionally, certain kinds of applications, such as those which may be distributed to clients who then build and run their own plugins in the distributed application may be very difficult or impossible to generate a realistic benchmark for, as there is no way of knowing how the client will use the application. Similar problems could also occur if an application is highly configurable; creating test scenarios and builds for all different possible configurations may not be realistic.
Finally, PGO sometimes does the exact opposite of what is wanted for certain low-latency use cases. PGO tries to make the common case faster, but it may actually be more important to make the uncommon cases faster so that when they do occur they run as quickly as possible.
In section 6.4 (stmt.select) paragraph 1, change the grammar to allow an optional attribute before the substatements of selection-statements.
selection-statement:
if constexpropt ( init-statementopt condition ) attribute-specifier-seqopt statement
if constexpropt ( init-statementopt condition ) attribute-specifier-seqopt statement else attribute-specifier-seqopt statement
In section 6.5 (stmt.iter) paragraph 1, change the grammar to allow an optional attribute before the substatement of while, do, and for statements.
iteration-statement:
while ( condition ) attribute-specifier-seqopt statement
do attribute-specifier-seqopt statement while ( expression ) ;
for ( init-statement conditionopt; expressionopt ) attribute-specifier-seqopt statement
for ( for-range-declaration : for-range-initializer ) attribute-specifier-seqopt statement
Add the likely attribute.
7.6.N Likely attribute [dcl.attr.likely]
The attribute-token likely indicates that a statement has a high probability of being executed. It shall appear at most once in each attribute-list and no attribute-argument-clause shall be present. The likely attribute is not allowed to appear in the same attribute-list as the unlikely attribute.
The attribute may be applied to the substatements of selection-statements, to labeled-statements whose label is case or default, or to the substatement of an iteration statement.
[ Note: Implementations are encouraged to use the likely attribute as a hint for optimization purposes — end note]
[ Example:
if (foo()) [[likely]] {
do_something();
}
Implementations are encouraged to optimize for the case where foo() returns true. — end example]
Add the unlikely attribute.
7.6.N Unlikely attribute [dcl.attr.unlikely]
The attribute-token unlikely indicates that a statement has a low probability of being executed. It shall appear at most once in each attribute-list and no attribute-argument-clause shall be present. The unlikely attribute is not allowed to appear in the same attribute-list as the likely attribute.
The attribute may be applied to the substatements of selection-statements, to labeled-statements whose label is case or default, or to the substatement of an iteration statement.
[ Note: Implementations are encouraged to use the unlikely attribute as a hint for optimization purposes — end note]
[ Example:
if (foo()) [[unlikely]] {
do_something();
}
Implementations are encouraged to optimize for the case where foo() returns false. — end example]
#include <array>
#include <cstdint>
#include <random>
#ifdef EXPECT_VAL
#define expect(x) __builtin_expect(!!(x), EXPECT_VAL)
#else
#define expect(x) (x)
#endif
std::uint16_t clamp(int i) {
if (expect(i < 0)) {
return 0;
} else if (expect(i > 0xFFFF)) {
return 0xFFFFu;
}
return i;
}
int main() {
std::mt19937 gen(42);
std::bernoulli_distribution d(.001), up_down(.5);
std::array<int, 1'000'000> data;
for (std::size_t i = 0; i != data.size(); ++i) {
if (d(gen)) {
data[i] = up_down(gen) ? -1 : 0xFFFFF;
} else {
data[i] = 1;
}
}
std::uint32_t result = 0;
for (int i = 0; i != 10000; ++i) {
for (auto val : data) {
result += clamp(val);
}
}
return result > 5 ? 1 : 2;
}
#include <array>
#include <cstdint>
#include <random>
#ifdef EXPECT_VAL
#define expect(x) __builtin_expect(!!(x), EXPECT_VAL)
#else
#define expect(x) (x)
#endif
int main() {
std::mt19937 gen(42);
std::bernoulli_distribution d(.001);
std::array<std::uint32_t, 1'000'000> data;
for (std::size_t i = 0; i != data.size(); ++i) {
data[i] = d(gen) ? 1 : 0;
}
std::uint32_t result = 0;
for (int i = 0; i != 10000; ++i) {
for (auto val : data) {
if (expect(val != 0)) {
result = i;
}
}
}
return result > 5 ? 1 : 2;
}